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{{Infobox country|name=United Republic of Tanzania|native_name=Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania|image_flag=Flag of Tanzania.svg|image_coat=Coat of arms of Tanzania.svg|capital=Dodoma|largest_city=Dar es Salaam|mode_of_production=[[Capitalism]]|image_map=Tanzania map.svg|map_width=260|official_languages=Swahili<br>English|area_km2=947,303|population_estimate=65,642,682|population_estimate_year=2023}} | {{Infobox country|name=United Republic of Tanzania|native_name=Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania|image_flag=Flag of Tanzania.svg|image_coat=Coat of arms of Tanzania.svg|capital=Dodoma|largest_city=Dar es Salaam|mode_of_production=[[Capitalism]]|image_map=Tanzania map.svg|map_width=260|official_languages=Swahili<br>English|area_km2=947,303|population_estimate=65,642,682|population_estimate_year=2023}} | ||
'''Tanzania''', officially the '''United Republic of Tanzania''', is a country in | '''Tanzania''', officially the '''United Republic of Tanzania''', is a country in East Africa bordering [[Republic of Kenya|Kenya]], [[Republic of Uganda|Uganda]], [[Republic of Rwanda|Rwanda]], [[Republic of Burundi|Burundi]], [[Republic of Zambia|Zambia]], [[Malawi]], and [[Mozambique]]. It was originally a [[German Empire (1871–1918)|German]] colony before being occupied by the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland|British]] in the [[First World War]]. | ||
== History == | == History == | ||
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Tanzania's eastern side is coastal, lying on the [[Indian Ocean]]. This position made the area a point of contact between many different cultures and nations for many centuries via trade routes, which has had various impacts on the region's history. Trade along the East African coast by Bantu speaking peoples living there in the first centuries of the 1st millennium during the region's Iron Age resulted in people moving in greater numbers to the coast, spreading influence in art and architecture, along with the Bantu language of Swahili.<ref name=":2">Cartwight, Mark. [https://www.worldhistory.org/Swahili_Coast/ "Swahili Coast."] World History Encyclopedia, 2019-04-01. [https://web.archive.org/web/20240529164418/https://www.worldhistory.org/Swahili_Coast/ Archived] 2024-05-29.</ref> | Tanzania's eastern side is coastal, lying on the [[Indian Ocean]]. This position made the area a point of contact between many different cultures and nations for many centuries via trade routes, which has had various impacts on the region's history. Trade along the East African coast by Bantu speaking peoples living there in the first centuries of the 1st millennium during the region's Iron Age resulted in people moving in greater numbers to the coast, spreading influence in art and architecture, along with the Bantu language of Swahili.<ref name=":2">Cartwight, Mark. [https://www.worldhistory.org/Swahili_Coast/ "Swahili Coast."] World History Encyclopedia, 2019-04-01. [https://web.archive.org/web/20240529164418/https://www.worldhistory.org/Swahili_Coast/ Archived] 2024-05-29.</ref> | ||
Over time, a number of city-states had arisen on the East African coast. The influence of | Over time, a number of city-states had arisen on the East African coast. The influence of Islam and Arabic came to the coast with Arab traders in the 7th century. At the height of their influence in the 12th-15th century, the coastal city-states traded with African tribes extending to inland locations (such as to Great Zimbabwe via Sofala), as well as extended to Arabia, Persia, India, and China across the Indian Ocean.<ref name=":2" /> | ||
=== Portuguese disruptions === | === Portuguese disruptions === | ||
When the | When the Portuguese arrived in the region, they aimed to achieve total control of the Indian Ocean trade networks. The Portuguese sank ships, destroyed cities, built forts, and exploited rivalries between states, creating major disruptions in the long-established trade networks, as well as attempting to move inland and causing similar disruptions to other peoples, such as targeting the Mutapa state in what is now Zimbabwe. Over time, the Portuguese shifted much of their focus to what is now Mozambique, the southern neighbor of modern Tanzania.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Web citation|author=Mark Cartwright|newspaper=World History Encyclopedia|title=The Portuguese in East Africa|date=2021-07-15.|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1798/the-portuguese-in-east-africa/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240430064838/https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1798/the-portuguese-in-east-africa/|archive-date=2024-04-30}}</ref> | ||
=== Colonization === | === Colonization === | ||
The Portuguese disrupted and colonized the Tanzanian coast for approximately two centuries (circa 1500-1700) until they were ousted by a coalition of the local people and the [[Sultanate of Oman|Omani]] Arabs. Following this, the Omani Arabs occupied Zanzibar and the coast as well as claiming some inland areas.<ref>Mulokozi, M.M. [https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000139564 "Study report on the common oral traditions of Southern Africa: a survey of Tanzanian oral traditions."] UNESCO, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, 1999. [https://web.archive.org/web/20240602064413/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000139564/PDF/139564engo.pdf.multi Archived] 2024-06-02.</ref> | The Portuguese disrupted and colonized the Tanzanian coast for approximately two centuries (circa 1500-1700) until they were ousted by a coalition of the local people and the [[Sultanate of Oman|Omani]] Arabs. Following this, the Omani Arabs occupied Zanzibar and the coast as well as claiming some inland areas.<ref>Mulokozi, M.M. [https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000139564 "Study report on the common oral traditions of Southern Africa: a survey of Tanzanian oral traditions."] UNESCO, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, 1999. [https://web.archive.org/web/20240602064413/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000139564/PDF/139564engo.pdf.multi Archived] 2024-06-02.</ref> | ||
By the 1800s, there was an increase of British, French, and German activity in the region. The British were active in the Indian Ocean trade. The French were purchasers of slaves for their colonies in the region (though the French officially banned the slave trade in 1822). Europeans began exploring the interior of the country in the mid-1800s, including groups of | By the 1800s, there was an increase of British, French, and German activity in the region. The British were active in the Indian Ocean trade. The French were purchasers of slaves for their colonies in the region (though the French officially banned the slave trade in 1822). Europeans began exploring the interior of the country in the mid-1800s, including groups of Christian missionaries. Germany began to establish their presence on the mainland in the late 1800s,<ref name=":1" /> largely through the efforts of the German Colonization Society founded by future colonial governor, Dr. Karl Peters.<ref name=":3">{{Web citation|author=Alys Beverton|newspaper=BlackPast|title=Maji Maji Uprising (1905-1907)|date=2009-06-21|url=https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/maji-maji-uprising-1905-1907/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240222021404/https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/maji-maji-uprising-1905-1907/|archive-date=2024-02-22}}</ref> | ||
Tanzania underwent two periods of formal colonial rule by European powers, first by Germany as part of | Tanzania underwent two periods of formal colonial rule by European powers, first by Germany as part of German East Africa from 1888-1919, and second by Britain from 1919-1961. The region was made a League of Nations mandate after Germany's defeat in the First World War, with colonial control transferred to the British. Under British rule the region was renamed to Tanganyika Territory. Following the Second World War, Tanganyika became a "trust territory" under UN monitoring, with Britain as its administering power.<ref>McCarthy, D. M. P. [https://archive.org/details/colonialbureaucr0000mcca/ "Colonial bureaucracy and creating underdevelopment: Tanganyika, 1919-1940."] The Iowa State University Press, 1982.</ref><ref name=":4">[https://www.jp.tzembassy.go.tz/resources/view/every-december-9th-is-the-commemoration-of-tanganyika-independence-day "Every December 9th : is the Commemoration of Tanzania Mainland Independence Day."] Embassy of Tanzania in Tokyo, Japan, 2023-12-09. [https://web.archive.org/web/20240530050154/https://www.jp.tzembassy.go.tz/resources/view/every-december-9th-is-the-commemoration-of-tanganyika-independence-day Archived] 2024-05-30.</ref><ref name=":0" /> | ||
==== German rule (1888-1919) ==== | ==== German rule (1888-1919) ==== | ||
Germany ruled the mainland of Tanzania as "German East Africa" until the end of the First World War, while Zanzibar became a British protectorate. Initially, German colonial rule was via the imperial charter of the German East Africa Company, but by 1891, governance was changed over to the German government itself.<ref name=":1" /> | Germany ruled the mainland of Tanzania as "German East Africa" until the end of the First World War, while Zanzibar became a British protectorate. Initially, German colonial rule was via the imperial charter of the German East Africa Company, but by 1891, governance was changed over to the German government itself.<ref name=":1" /> | ||
The Germans used forced labor to construct infrastructure such as roads and railway systems, and instructed villages to grow cotton as a cash crop instead of traditionally grown food crops, and subjected the population to high taxation, enforced through repression and violence. The policies and practices of German rule were extremely unpopular with the local people, and the German colonizers were met with significant resistance.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" /> | The Germans used forced labor to construct infrastructure such as roads and railway systems, and instructed villages to grow cotton as a cash crop instead of traditionally grown food crops, and subjected the population to high taxation, enforced through repression and violence. The policies and practices of German rule were extremely unpopular with the local people, and the German colonizers were met with significant resistance.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" /> | ||
===== Maji Maji Uprising (1905-1907) ===== | ===== Maji Maji Uprising (1905-1907) ===== | ||
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The rebellion spread all throughout the colony, eventually involving 20 ethnic groups who wanted to oust the colonizers. In August 1905, several thousand warriors attacked a German stronghold, but failed to overrun it. The German response was brutal, killing men, women, and children and adopting famine as a weapon. It is estimated that between 75,000 and 120,000 Africans were killed and many more were displaced from their homes during this two-year period of revolt against German rule.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" /> | The rebellion spread all throughout the colony, eventually involving 20 ethnic groups who wanted to oust the colonizers. In August 1905, several thousand warriors attacked a German stronghold, but failed to overrun it. The German response was brutal, killing men, women, and children and adopting famine as a weapon. It is estimated that between 75,000 and 120,000 Africans were killed and many more were displaced from their homes during this two-year period of revolt against German rule.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" /> | ||
Although the uprising was ultimately unsuccessful, the German government was pressured to institute some reforms | Although the uprising was ultimately unsuccessful, the German government was pressured to institute some reforms. Furthermore, the uprising would become an inspiration for later freedom fighters against European colonial rule.<ref name=":3" /> | ||
==== First World War ==== | ==== First World War ==== | ||
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==== Second World War ==== | ==== Second World War ==== | ||
==== Trust territory under British rule (1946-1961) ==== | ==== Trust territory under British rule (1946-1961) ==== | ||
Following the Second World War, along with the other remaining League of Nations mandates, Tanganyika became a United Nations (UN) trust territory, with Britain as its administering power.<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Web citation|newspaper=United Nations|title=List of former Trust and Non-Self-Governing Territories|url=https://www.un.org/dppa/decolonization/en/history/former-trust-and-nsgts}}</ref> Under the terms of the trust agreement, Britain nominally had the responsibility of preparing Tanganyika for independence, and was considered accountable to the UN's Trusteeship Council in that regard, though in practice the British governed Tanganyika similarly to their other colonies.<ref name=":5" /> As a trust territory, the government of Tanganyika had to report every three years to the UN's Trusteeship Council as well as be periodically assessed by a visiting mission from the Council to study the trust territory's conditions.<ref name=":8">{{Citation|author=Sophia Mustafa|year=1961|title=The Tanganyika Way|title-url=https://archive.org/details/tanganyikaway0000unse|city=Dar es Salaam|publisher=East African Literature Bureau}}</ref> | Following the Second World War, along with the other remaining League of Nations mandates, Tanganyika became a United Nations (UN) trust territory, with Britain as its administering power.<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Web citation|newspaper=United Nations|title=List of former Trust and Non-Self-Governing Territories|url=https://www.un.org/dppa/decolonization/en/history/former-trust-and-nsgts}}</ref> Under the terms of the trust agreement, Britain nominally had the responsibility of preparing Tanganyika for independence, and was considered accountable to the UN's Trusteeship Council in that regard, though in practice the British governed Tanganyika similarly to their other colonies.<ref name=":5" /> As a trust territory, the government of Tanganyika had to report every three years to the UN's Trusteeship Council as well as be periodically assessed by a visiting mission from the Council to study the trust territory's conditions.<ref name=":8">{{Citation|author=Sophia Mustafa|year=1961|title=The Tanganyika Way|title-url=https://archive.org/details/tanganyikaway0000unse|city=Dar es Salaam|publisher=East African Literature Bureau}}</ref> | ||
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=== Zanzibar Revolution (1964) === | === Zanzibar Revolution (1964) === | ||
The Sultanate of Zanzibar formally attained independence from Britain on December 10, 1963. A month later, on 12 January 1964, a revolution began which led to the overthrow of the sultan. It was described by one historian as a revolution which "replaced a conservative Arab-dominated regime with one that espoused the principles of African nationalism and radical socialism and that developed close ties with communist bloc countries."<ref>{{Citation|author=Ian Speller|year=2007|title=An African Cuba? Britain and the Zanzibar Revolution, 1964|pdf=https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/arts/history/students/modules/hi277/programme/t1w7/hi277_week_7_zanzibar_speller_.pdf|publisher=Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History|doi=10.1080/03086530701337666}}</ref> | The Sultanate of Zanzibar formally attained independence from Britain on December 10, 1963. A month later, on 12 January 1964, a revolution began which led to the overthrow of the sultan. It was described by one historian as a revolution which "replaced a conservative Arab-dominated regime with one that espoused the principles of African nationalism and radical socialism and that developed close ties with communist bloc countries."<ref>{{Citation|author=Ian Speller|year=2007|title=An African Cuba? Britain and the Zanzibar Revolution, 1964|pdf=https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/arts/history/students/modules/hi277/programme/t1w7/hi277_week_7_zanzibar_speller_.pdf|publisher=Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History|doi=10.1080/03086530701337666}}</ref> | ||
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In 1965, Tanzania formally became a one-party state.<ref name=":5" /> | In 1965, Tanzania formally became a one-party state.<ref name=":5" /> | ||
From 1965 to 1968, Tanzania broke off diplomatic relations with Britain due to their policy on [[Rhodesia|Rhodesia's]] (now [[Republic of Zimbabwe|Zimbabwe]]) "unilateral declaration of independence" | From 1965 to 1968, Tanzania broke off diplomatic relations with Britain due to their policy on [[Rhodesia|Rhodesia's]] (now [[Republic of Zimbabwe|Zimbabwe]]) "unilateral declaration of independence" under white settler minority rule.<ref name=":9" /> | ||
==== Arusha Declaration (1967) ==== | ==== Arusha Declaration (1967) ==== | ||
In 1967, President Nyerere announced the intent of forming a [[socialist state]] in the [[Arusha Declaration]]. His administration nationalized key industries while developing agriculture and industry. All [[Trade union|unions]] were merged into the [[National Union of Tanganyika Workers]]. | In 1967, President Nyerere announced the intent of forming a [[socialist state]] in the [[Arusha Declaration]]. His administration nationalized key industries while developing agriculture and industry. All [[Trade union|unions]] were merged into the [[National Union of Tanganyika Workers]]. A process of forming collective villages, also called ujamaa villages, was also envisioned in the Declaration and clarified in various speeches and writings thereafter.<ref name=":122" /><ref name=":11" /> | ||
==== Rural development | ==== Rural development ==== | ||
After the Arusha Declaration was made, which Nyerere described as "a declaration of intent"<ref>{{Citation|author=Julius K. Nyerere|year=1968|title=Ujamaa -- Essays on Socialism|title-url=https://archive.org/details/ujamaaessaysonso0000nyer|chapter=The Purpose is Man: A speech at Dar es Salaam University College, 5 August 1967|publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref> a policy booklet was published in September 1967, titled "Socialism and Rural Development".<ref name=":14">{{Citation|author=Nyerere, Julius K.|year=1968|title=Ujamaa -- Essays on Socialism.|title-url=https://archive.org/details/ujamaaessaysonso0000nyer/page/106/mode/1up|chapter=Socialism and Rural Development: Policy booklet published in September 1967|publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref> The booklet explained various details of the ideas underpinning the goals for rural development and emphasized the importance and necessity of democratic decision-making among peasants for how to develop their villages, as well as making assessments of the limitations of Tanzania's development level and available resources at the time.<ref name=":14" /> | After the Arusha Declaration was made, which Nyerere described as "a declaration of intent"<ref>{{Citation|author=Julius K. Nyerere|year=1968|title=Ujamaa -- Essays on Socialism|title-url=https://archive.org/details/ujamaaessaysonso0000nyer|chapter=The Purpose is Man: A speech at Dar es Salaam University College, 5 August 1967|publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref> a policy booklet was published in September 1967, titled "Socialism and Rural Development".<ref name=":14">{{Citation|author=Nyerere, Julius K.|year=1968|title=Ujamaa -- Essays on Socialism.|title-url=https://archive.org/details/ujamaaessaysonso0000nyer/page/106/mode/1up|chapter=Socialism and Rural Development: Policy booklet published in September 1967|publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref> The booklet explained various details of the ideas underpinning the goals for rural development and emphasized the importance and necessity of democratic decision-making among peasants for how to develop their villages, as well as making assessments of the limitations of Tanzania's development level and available resources at the time.<ref name=":14" /> | ||
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Author [[Vijay Prashad]], in his work ''[[Library:The Darker Nations|The Darker Nations]]'' which explores setbacks in the [[Three-world model|Third World]] revolutionary movements' struggles to enact their agendas, described the ujamaa villages as having two major flaws in his view, firstly that they were not constructed so as to "refashion the gendered aspects of social power" and thus failed to deal with [[Patriarchy|patriarchal]] relations, and secondly, that the policy left no time to persuade the peasantry, and thus often relied on force. Prashad notes that Tanzania's experience is consistent with "a vast number of examples of Third World development", in what he describes as "Third World socialism in a hurry" born out of the need for nations to develop rapidly.<ref name=":122" /> | Author [[Vijay Prashad]], in his work ''[[Library:The Darker Nations|The Darker Nations]]'' which explores setbacks in the [[Three-world model|Third World]] revolutionary movements' struggles to enact their agendas, described the ujamaa villages as having two major flaws in his view, firstly that they were not constructed so as to "refashion the gendered aspects of social power" and thus failed to deal with [[Patriarchy|patriarchal]] relations, and secondly, that the policy left no time to persuade the peasantry, and thus often relied on force. Prashad notes that Tanzania's experience is consistent with "a vast number of examples of Third World development", in what he describes as "Third World socialism in a hurry" born out of the need for nations to develop rapidly.<ref name=":122" /> | ||
==== | ==== Activism and debates ==== | ||
Activist and historian [[Walter Rodney]], who had visited Tanzania in 1966, came to live in Tanzania from 1969 to 1974, after having been banned from [[Jamaica]]. He taught history and political science at the [[University of Dar es Salaam]],<ref name=":13" /> and also wrote articles in publications such as the joint magazine of the TANU Youth League's branch and [[University Students African Revolutionary Front]] (USARF),<ref>{{Citation|year=1974|title=The Silent Class Struggle|title-url=https://archive.org/details/silentclassstrug0000unse|city=Dar es Salaam|publisher=Tanzania Publishing House}}</ref> called ''[[Cheche]]'' (meaning "spark" in Swahili), as well as in TANU's party paper ''[[The Nationalist]]'',<ref name=":15">{{Web citation|author=Shivji, Issa G.|newspaper=Monthly Review|title=Remembering Walter Rodney|date=2012-12-01|url=https://monthlyreview.org/2012/12/01/remembering-walter-rodney/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240607085003/https://monthlyreview.org/2012/12/01/remembering-walter-rodney/|archive-date=2024-06-07}}</ref> and engaged in political discussions and debates, including with a TANU cabinet minister over Tanzania's economic direction. Though some of Rodney's statements drew strong criticism from Nyerere, Rodney continued to teach at the university.<ref name=":13">{{Web citation|author=Chinedu Chukwudinma|newspaper=MR Online, originally published by ROAPE (Review of African Political Economy)|title=The Mecca of African Liberation: Walter Rodney in Tanzania|date=2022-04-07|url=https://mronline.org/2022/04/13/the-mecca-of-african-liberation/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240606112456/https://mronline.org/2022/04/13/the-mecca-of-african-liberation/|archive-date=2024-06-06}}</ref | Activist and historian [[Walter Rodney]], who had visited Tanzania in 1966, came to live in Tanzania from 1969 to 1974, after having been banned from [[Jamaica]]. He taught history and political science at the [[University of Dar es Salaam]],<ref name=":13" /> and also wrote articles in publications such as the joint magazine of the TANU Youth League's branch and [[University Students African Revolutionary Front]] (USARF),<ref>{{Citation|year=1974|title=The Silent Class Struggle|title-url=https://archive.org/details/silentclassstrug0000unse|city=Dar es Salaam|publisher=Tanzania Publishing House}}</ref> called ''[[Cheche]]'' (meaning "spark" in Swahili), as well as in TANU's party paper ''[[The Nationalist]]'',<ref name=":15">{{Web citation|author=Shivji, Issa G.|newspaper=Monthly Review|title=Remembering Walter Rodney|date=2012-12-01|url=https://monthlyreview.org/2012/12/01/remembering-walter-rodney/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240607085003/https://monthlyreview.org/2012/12/01/remembering-walter-rodney/|archive-date=2024-06-07}}</ref> and engaged in political discussions and debates, including with a TANU cabinet minister over Tanzania's economic direction. Though some of Rodney's statements drew strong criticism from Nyerere, Rodney continued to teach at the university.<ref name=":13">{{Web citation|author=Chinedu Chukwudinma|newspaper=MR Online, originally published by ROAPE (Review of African Political Economy)|title=The Mecca of African Liberation: Walter Rodney in Tanzania|date=2022-04-07|url=https://mronline.org/2022/04/13/the-mecca-of-african-liberation/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240606112456/https://mronline.org/2022/04/13/the-mecca-of-african-liberation/|archive-date=2024-06-06}}</ref> | ||
[[Issa G. Shivji]], another individual who had published in ''Cheche'' at the time, remarked in a 2021 interview regarding the debates, which at times were highly critical of the methods in the path to socialist construction being taken in Tanzania, that "we had some very great debates in Tanzania [...] Mwalimu did not like us but he tolerated us. He tolerated and sometimes even came to the campus to debate with us [...] there was a kind of love and hate relationship between the radical students on campus and Mwalimu Nyerere."<ref name=":12" /> After the third issue of ''Cheche'' was published, the publication was banned and USARF deregistered, and the students re-named their journal ''[[MajiMaji]]'' and many of the former USARF leadership went into the TANU Youth League and continued their activities.<ref name=":15" /> | [[Issa G. Shivji]], another individual who had published in ''Cheche'' at the time, remarked in a 2021 interview regarding the debates, which at times were highly critical of the methods in the path to socialist construction being taken in Tanzania, that "we had some very great debates in Tanzania [...] Mwalimu did not like us but he tolerated us. He tolerated and sometimes even came to the campus to debate with us [...] there was a kind of love and hate relationship between the radical students on campus and Mwalimu Nyerere."<ref name=":12" /> After the third issue of ''Cheche'' was published, the publication was banned and USARF deregistered, and the students re-named their journal ''[[MajiMaji]]'' and many of the former USARF leadership went into the TANU Youth League and continued their activities.<ref name=":15" /> | ||
==== Sixth Pan-African Congress (1974) ==== | ==== Sixth Pan-African Congress (1974) ==== |