Comrade:Cassette/notes/Elementry principles of philosophy (Georges Politzer)

Part 1: The philosophical problem

1. Introduction

Summary: The worker needs to practice dialectical materialism in order to connect theory to practice to carry out a just revolution. This method of analysis and reasoning can solve all problems and is the basis of Marxist philosophy. It wholly stems from and evolves with science.

Dialectical Materialism

• Connects theory to practice

What is the method of analysis and reasoning that the worker activist needs?

• a method that never separates theory from practice, that takes into account facts and circumstances that are never the same.

What should we avoid

• Ready made solutions (dogma)

Why should we study philosophy

• We the worker activist need a method of analysis and reasoning that is just in order to carry out a just revolution

What is Philosophy

• Study of the most general problems

How does science differ

• The study of more specific problems

Philosophies connection to science

• Extension of sciences; It’s based and depends on science

Materialism

• Is nothing other then the scientific explanation of the universe

What is the common confusion to which the word materialism gives rise?

• Thought to be one who only thinks of enjoying material pleasures. This is wrong. It does not prevent us from having an ideal and fighting to make it triumph

What is the relationship between materialism and Marxism?

• Marxism based on materialism; consequently stems from science, rests on them and evolves with them

What was the impact of Marx and Engels on materialism?

• updated ancient materialism and brought it into the age of modern science

What marxists take into account when looking at class struggle?

• Economic, political and ideological struggle.

Who will give the movement the best direction?

• The one who is able to fight on all these terrains

How important is the study of philosophy for the militant worker?

• In order to carry out a just revolution it is necessary

What more particular importance does the study of dialectical materialism have for them?

• It will allow them to solve all the problems and to unveil all the campaigns of falsification of marxism, which pretend to complete and renew it.

- my note: Like the new left/dem socialists. All Marx but no bite

Bourgeoisie campaign of silence

• Separating Marxism from materialism. Marxism taught only as political doctrine and historical materialism spoken of without mentioning philosophy of materialism

2. The fundamental problem of philosophy

Summary: The fundamental question of philosophy is which one came first, being or thought (aka: spirit or matter) and there are only two answers to this question, the materialist and idealist ones. Materialism is based in science and says that ideas come from matter and idealism is non-scientific and says that spirit created matter.

Two ways of explaining the world?

• 1)the scientific conception 2) the non scientific conception

What two distinctions did philosophers make when explaining the world?

• Matter and spirit: objects that are material and those that are not material like ideas, mind and thought

All the ways these distinctions are named

• being and thinking/mind and matter/brain and consciousness/social experience and social consciousness/power and will

What is the fundamental question of philosophy

• Which one precedes the other? Which is the most important?

There can only be two answers to this question...

• 1)a scientific answer 2) a non-scientific answer

What do we struggle with believing?

• That there has always been something and we tend toward there having been nothing.

What have we found is easier to believe?

• What religion teaches, “The spirit hovered above the darkness... then came the matter” Spirit preceding matter

During early humans what were dreams and imagination attributed to?

• a double existence leading early philosophers to attribute these thoughts and feelings double to the soul that left the body after death

God’s and spirits

• Attributed to external phenomenon they couldn’t understand or control like storms, germination and floods

What question split philosophers into two great camps?

• Did God create the world or has the world been in existence eternally?

Idealism answer

• non-scientific explanation - God created the world - spirit created matter

Materialism answer

• scientific explaination - nature, matter was the main element

Support for materialism

• there are bodies without thought, like stones, metals, earth, we never observe, on the other hand, the existence of mind without body.

Can only be two answers to question How is it that man thinks?

• idealist 1)humans’ think because we have a soul / materialist 2)humans’ think because we have a brain

3. Idealism

Summary: Philosophical Idealism is the belief that thought precedes matter. As science dispensed with creationism, idealism changed through Berkeley to matter doesn’t exist. Berkeley argued that our minds are incapable of creating things on their own so they need a higher power which creates and imposes on us all the ideas of the world. This school of thought is taught today having undergone various disguises

What is the common confusion to which the words idealism give rise?

• confusing moral idealism with philosophical idealism

Moral idealism

• devoting oneself to a cause/ideal

Philosophical idealism

• it is thought which is the principle element, the most important the first.

What is the first form of idealism

• It is the spirit which produces matter.

How did idealism change

• As science began to explain nature and dispensed with creationism, idealism changed to combat it by denying the very existence of matter

18th century father of this kind of idealism

• Berkeley, an English bishop

The gist of Berkeley’s idealism

• Our sensations are only ideas that we have in our mind. So the objects that we perceive through our senses are nothing but ideas, and ideas cannot exist outside our mind.

Consequence of idealist reasoning - Solipsism

• Everything is ideas so the outside world does not exist therefore I am the only one who exists, since I only know other men through my ideas, that other men are for me, like material objects, only collections of ideas

Why is Berkeley’s work important to know?

• The basis of the arguments of all idealistic philosophies are found in the reasoning of Bishop Berkeley. This method of thought dominates the official history of philosophy and is part of our religions, schools and the fabric of society to the extent it has penetrated our everyday thinking.

What are the main idealistic arguments?

• spirit creates matter, the world does not exist outside our thinking and it’s our ideas that create things

The two perspectives that stem from spirit creates matter

• 1)ordinary idealism of theologies - God created the world and it exists outside of us 2)Berkely’s immaterialist ideaology- God created the illusion of the world by giving us ideas that do not correspond to material reality rather spirit is the only reality

How does a higher power fit into this?

• Our mind is incapable of creating these things on it’s own so it can not do what it wants with them therefore it needs a more powerful mind. This higher power creates our spirit (mind) and imposes on us all the ideas of the world we encounter in it.

4. Materialism

Why should we study materialism?

• We have learned through our society to think in an idealistic way and we must study materialism to change that.

When there was next to no scientific knowledge…

• Philosophers and nascent sciences formed a whole one being the extension of the other

When science brought precision in the explanation of the phenomena of the world…

• It contradicted the dogmas of idealistic philosophies which created a schism between these two

Materialism was born with…

• science and grew with it until it was reunited with science through the dialectical materialism of Marx and Engels

What is the reasoning for matter being the most important?

• There can be no thought without matter/brain. Therefore matter doesn’t need thought to exist but thought only exists because of matter.
• Things around us exist independently from us: they are what give us our thoughts; and our ideas are only the reflection of things in our brain.

Which is right, idealism or materialism?

To summarize, Idealists say 3 things and materialists say the opposite.

1. That it is spirit that creates matter;
2. That matter does not exist outside our thoughts, and that it is therefore for us only an illusion;
3. That it is our ideas that create things.

What three questions do we need to discuss to know who is right about the fundamental problem of philosophy

1. Is it true that the world exists only in our thoughts?
2. Is it true that it is our ideas that create things?
3. Is it true that spirit creates matter?

Is it true that the world only exists in our thinking

• Materialist recognize that we don’t just have our senses anymore to rely on to find out what is real rather we have science. So the sun exists, not because of what we detect with our senses (flat, red disc) but it exists by invoking science which allows us to correct the errors our senses makeIt follows that the materialist is…
• Not discussing the properties of things, but their existence.
• Not discussing whether our senses deceive us and distort material reality, but whether this reality exists outside our senses.

Berkeley’s argument relies on?

• Our senses and the properties of things (which is what we relied on before science) and all it proves is that our senses can deceive us/we can see things differently then someone else. Not that matter doesn’t exist.

This leads to…

• Materialist’s using science to assert the existence of things outside us while idealists “argue about words, make great speeches, write many pages.”

How do idealists respond to the question, did the world exist before humankind?

• Thought inhabited animals

What does it all come back to for idealists?

• Even if there was only a solar system without man, thought and spirit existed in God. God is at the crux of it. Idealism cannot sustain itself without God, and God cannot exist without idealism.

Idealism vs Materialism comes down to?

• God vs Science.

What allows us to see the world as an objective reality

• science

According to Lenin, what confounds the Idealist?

• The criterion of practice

What will allow us to answer the question, is it true that it is our ideas that create things?

• science and practice

What provides the proof that idealists are actually materialists

• If an idealist is walking onto the street while a bus is coming and they don’t want to be crushed they will be careful as there is no difference between an objective and subjective bus to them in this scenario.

Because of practice and science...

• Idealist no longer assert, like Berkeley, that the world does not exist. The arguments are much more subtle and hidden

If a conception is right or wrong

• It is practice alone which, through experience, will demonstrate it to us.

The example of the bus shows

• That there is an objective reality and to answer the previous question that our ideas do not create things

Idealist’s proof for God

• Idealist point to mysteries that only prove we haven’t been able to explain those mysteries yet not that there is a God.

Example of “proof”

• When the idealists want to "prove" to us the necessity of the creation of the world by saying that matter could not always have existed, that it had to have a birth, they resort to a God who never had a beginning.

Does science allow us to think that the spirit created matter

• No. For this to be possible it would have been necessary that spirit existed alone before matter. But science has shown us that there is no spirit without matter, that spirit is always linked to matter, and we see in particular that the mind of humans is linked to the brain, which is the source of our ideas and thoughts. Science does not allow us to conceive that ideas exist in a vacuum.

What can we conclude from this

• The mind of God needs a brain to exist. So we can conclude that it is not God who created matter, and man as well, but that it is matter, in the form of the human brain, that created the God-mind.

What can we conclude from the fundamental problem of philosophy

• Materialists are right and science proves our assertions

Is there a third philosophy? Agnosticism?

What is the basis for Agnosticism?

• We can never know the real basis of things only appearances

3. Study of metaphysics

9. History of materialism

Why was early dialectical materialism, which developed with the emergence of science in sixth/fifth B.C.E., abandoned?

• The state of science did not allow us to prove what was being claimed and the social conditions necessary for the dialectic to flourish were not yet realized.

What was the science of the middle ages

• Scholasticism - take passages about a subject from Aristotle then read what St. Thomas Aquinas says about those passages. Then maybe refer to a third book that just repeats the same thing without any critique and rinse and repeat. Science was only studied in books

What changed this mode of study

• Bacon came up with the experimental method and advocated for studying science in the “great book of nature”
• Then Locke furthered this through showing all ideas come from experience. The idea of the first table came to man before it existed, because, through experience, he was already using a tree trunk or a stone as a table.
• Then Descartes argued animals were machines but humans had a soul
• La Mettrie extends the animal-machine to humans
• Diderot, in 18th century, almost arrives at the conclusions of contemporary (dialectical) materialism
• There is a retreat of materialism in first half of 19th century
• Feuerbach in Germany brings it back into the spotlight

What three discoveries lead to enormous progress in the sciences during the 19th century

• The living cell
• the transformation of energy, and evolution (from Darwin)
• which will allow Marx and Engels, influenced by Feuerbach, to make materialism evolve to give us modern, or dialectical, materialism.

Why was it necessary to create and develop the sciences for dialectical reasoning to flourish

• One had first to know what a particular thing was before one could observe the changes it was undergoing

What did Lenin mean by “idealism is nothing but a refined form of religion.”

• idealism is able to present its conceptions much more flexibly than religion. To claim that the universe was created by a spirit floating above the darkness, that God is immaterial, and then suddenly, as religion does, declaring that he speaks (through the Word) and that he has a son (Jesus), is a series of brutally presented ideas. Idealism, by affirming that the world exists only in our thoughts, in our mind, presents itself in a more hidden way. In fact, as we know, it is the same in substance, but the form is less brutal, more elegant. That is why idealism is a refined form of religion.

Where do we see the principle that when science develops materialism develops

• In the Middle Ages, a weak development of science, a halt to materialism.
• In the 17th and 18th centuries, a great development of science corresponds to a great development of materialism. The French materialism of the 18th century is the direct consequence of the development of the sciences.
• In the nineteenth century, we witness many great discoveries, and materialism undergoes a very great transformation with Marx and Engels.
• Today, science is progressing enormously and so is materialism. We see the best scholars applying dialectical materialism in their work.

The struggle of materialism vs idealism is really…

• the struggle between two currents. One is pulling humanity towards ignorance and keeping it in this ignorance, the other, on the contrary, tends towards the emancipation of men by replacing ignorance with science.

How must we judge the philosophers and scientists of particular time periods

• by placing them in this struggle of ignorance against science

What kind of struggle is this?

• it is not simply a theoretical struggle, but a social and political struggle. The ruling classes in this battle are always on the side of ignorance. Science is revolutionary and contributes to the emancipation of humanity.

Why was the bourgeois in favor of science in the 18th century but fighting against it in the 20th century?

• In the 18th century, the bourgeois was dominated by the feudal class so it was leading the fight against ignorance. In the 20th century it was the ruling class so it fights against science for ignorance like in the case of hitlerism

To sum up, how has pre-marxist materialism played a role in the world…

• Pre-marxist materialism developed a general conception of the world that could be opposed to religion, and therefore ignorance. From this springboard the evolution of materialism develops which creates the conditions for the blossoming of dialectical materialism.

Why was materialism of the 18th century predominantly mechanical materialism?

• It viewed everything like a machine, as if it was only mechanical. Seeing only movement but not change. This was understandable given at the time mechanics, and mechanics of the body and gravity were the only natural sciences that had come to a close. Biology and chemistry were still in their infancy.
• Motion was thought of as a mechanical movement only. That the same events happened over and over again. We saw the machine side of things but not the living side. This materialism considered that the world did not evolve and that it returned at regular intervals to similar states, nor did it conceive of an evolution of man and animals.

What type of thought came from believing life was a perpetual circle?

• Life was believed to always produce the same results. That we can’t transform the world or ourselves. It overlooked the role of human action in the world.

10. Study of metaphysics

What is the principle of identity?

• preferring immobility to movement and identity to change

How does this shape perception of the world?

• Leads to views like, there has never been any change (example: creationism), a periodic return to the same events. Man is always the same. “There is nothing new under the sun.”

What is an example of this

• The criticism of socialism: man is selfish and that it is necessary for some force to intervene to constrain him, otherwise disorder would reign.
  • We picture the future humans who will live in a relatively distant future as similar to the humans of today (not taking into account that when society changes, humans will also change).

Where is the metaphysical conception in the following example?

• worker in the Soviet Union receives a salary that does not correspond to the total value of what he produces, so there is a surplus value, that is to say, a deduction from his salary. So it is stolen. In France, it is the same, workers are exploited; there is therefore no difference between a Soviet worker and a French worker.
  • It consists in not considering that there are two types of societies here and in not taking into account the differences between these two societies.
  • The surplus value in France goes to the boss; in the USSR to the socialist state

What was the error made here?

• underestimating change and preferring immobility or, in other words, which tends to perpetuate identity in the midst of change.

What is this identity?

• Like a house over time, it looks identical and we see it as the same house (as remaining itself). So to be identical is to remain the same, not to become different.
  • But we are only looking at a glance, when looked at in detail it has always been changing

What are the practical consequences of this?

• We say life is life and death is death. What is not death is something else. Everything is separated out from each other and the world becomes a collection of separated things which lead into the second principle, Isolation of things.

A field of study where we see this principle?

• ancient zoology: classifies animals by clearly separating and seeing no connection between them

Whats a way the bourgeoisie benefit from this?

• Seeing absolutely no connection between science, philosophy and politics. A scientist does not have to mix their science with philosophy and politics. It will be the same for the philosopher and a person of a political party.

Note: I now recognize that when I heard an acquaintance say that there is no point in learning philosophy when people are starving, that is metaphysical thinking. They don’t see the connection of philosophy to the disciplines they value in the struggle for liberation. To creating the conditions where everyone is fed.

What’s another example of metaphysical thinking?

• When Wells proposed to Maxim Gorky to create a literary club where politics would not be made.

What does this look like in everyday practice

• Studying things only for themselves (like a dilettante). Art for arts sake.
• Those who see the state separate from society (like folks who believe there are good cops bad cops?)
• Isolating humans from their environment, society (the belief that people with addictions are lazy, weak, and all racist beliefs etc.)
• If we also consider the machine for itself by isolating it from the society in which it produces, we make the mistake of thinking: "Machine in Paris, machine in Moscow; added value here and there, there's no difference, it's absolutely the same thing.

How are we led to the thinking of eternal, absolute and impassible divisions

• We forget the relationship between things from having classified and catalogued them based on our understanding of things as immobile and unchanging.

Does this make the Marxist division of the two classes, the bourgeoisie and proletariat, metaphysical thinking?

• No, as it is not simply by introducing divisions that one is a metaphysician, it is the way in which one establishes the differences, the relations that exist between these divisions.

What would make this way of thinking metaphysical?

• The bourgeoisie interpret the two classes as being the rich and poor and and say that “there has always been rich and poor” and “there always will be”. The relation that exists between this division, that makes this metaphysical, is “there has always been” and “always will be.”

What does this thinking result in?

This division is forever classified independently of each other, and seen as completely separate

What makes the Marxist conception of proletariat and bourgeois NOT metaphysical?

• Marxist thinking sees the bourgeoisie and proletariat through the mutual relationship of the class struggle.

When we don’t see these mutual relationships, the conditions are created for…

• setting them against each other leading to opposites being seen as mutually exclusive?

What is an example?

• A man who has just lost his life is considered dead because it is impossible for him to be both alive and dead at the same time

What is the characteristic, Opposites are mutually exclusive?

• Opposites mutually exclude each other and which maintains that two opposite things cannot exist at the same time.

How does metaphysical thinking look when we talk about democracy and dictatorship?

• There can only be one or the other. We have to choose otherwise we are faced with the “horror of contradiction” which we can’t have.

How does the Marxist attitude differ

• It views the dictatorship of the proletariat, for example, as both dictatorship by the masses and democracy for the exploited masses.

How does it differ toward death?

• “We believe that the life of living beings is only possible because there is a perpetual struggle between cells and because there are continually some which die only to be replaced by others. Thus, life contains death within itself. We think that death is not as total and separate from life as metaphysics believes, for on a corpse all life has not disappeared, since certain cells continue to live for some time and from this corpse other lives will be born.”

To summarize the 4 characteristics of metaphysical thinking are…

1. Seeing things in their immobility, in their identity.
2. Separating things from one another, detaching them from their mutual relationships.
3. Establishing eternal divisions between things, impassable walls.
4. Opposing opposites, affirming that two opposites cannot exist at the same time.

Does the world conform to this conception?

• No. We see that everything changes and we see movement. So this conception is not in agreement with the things themselves. It is obviously nature that is right, and it is this conception that is wrong.

The universe is viewed as fixed but at a glance…

• you might not recognize this way of thinking when viewing how metaphysicians think about nature, society and thought. But if we take a closer look…

how is nature viewed as fixed?

• When looking at the earth, they admit movement but they make of it a pure mechanical movement, because this movement is without history. It is viewed as a clockwork mechanism.

If nature was truly a clockwork mechanism…

• things would continually return to the same point without leaving a trace, nature would remain identical to itself

Where can we find an example of someone who looked at nature in this mechanical way

• Descartes. He seeks to reduce to mechanics all the physical and physiological laws. He has no idea of chemistry (see his explanation of the circulation of blood). Diderot, who is less purely mechanistic, and who, in some writings, glimpses the dialectical conception.

How is society viewed as fixed

• The Capitalist regime is considered to be permanent and eternal and even compare it at times to a machine

What changes are recognized in society by metaphysicians

• It is recognized that changes occur, as, for example, in production, when finished products are produced from raw materials; or in politics, when governments succeed each other.

How is capitalism treated like a machine

• It is viewed as something to be repaired, when it gets out of order, in order to maintain it. It is hoped that this economic machine might continue to distribute dividends to some and misery to others like an automatic apparatus.

How is parliament treated like a machine

• one thing is asked of the bourgeois parliamentary regime: that is to function, sometimes to the left, sometimes to the right, in order to preserve the privileges of capitalism.

What would happen if our society were to continue its march continuously without interruption and without any significant events or changes?

• it would not leave any evidence or impact behind, consequently, no continuation in history. There would be no contradictions to create the conditions for change (?) (my conclusion not the authors) and no new societies could emerge.

What is an example of society being viewed like a clockwork mechanism?

• History is perpetually beginning again or “history continually repeats itself” : a regular march and a periodic return of the same events

Are movement and change outright denied?

• no but they falsify the movement itself by transforming it into a simple mechanism.

What does metaphysical thinking look like toward thought?

• Believing we have always had the same way of reasoning and feeling. “Our feelings, we consider them to be the same as the Greeks, goodness and love as having always existed; this is how one speaks of "eternal love

What is a metaphysical saying that relates to thought?

• “a society cannot exist without having another basis than individual and selfish enrichment”
• "desires of the men are always the same".

What is this way of thinking usually called?

• common sense

What is an example of conception and method?

1. The changes we see in society are only apparent, they renew what has already been - that is a conception".
2. When we look at the history of society to see what has already taken place and conclude that "there is nothing new under the sun", this is what "method" is.

We have seen what the metaphysical conception is now what is the method?

• logic

Logic is thought of as the art of thinking well. What are the three main rules?

1. The principle of identity: it is, as we have already seen, the rule that a thing is identical to itself, does not change (the horse is the horse).
2. The principle of non-contradiction: a thing cannot be at the same time itself and its opposite. It is necessary to choose (life cannot be life and death).
3. The principle of the excluded third party - or exclusion of the third case, which means: between two contradictory possibilities, there is no room for a third. One must choose between life and death, there is no third possibility.

As we see Logic and Metaphysics are intimately linked.

What is a syllogism

• A syllogism is a group of three propositions; the first two are called premises, which means "sent before"; and the third is the conclusion

What is an example of a syllogism

• "All men are mortal; this comrade is a man; therefore this comrade is mortal" - (to learn more about syllogism’s read https://redsails.org/the-syllogism/)

What is wrong with the syllogism

• It leads to making classifications. This is the only problem we have in our mind. We see things as circles or boxes of different sizes, and our concern is to fit those circles or boxes into each other, and into a certain order.

Following from the syllogism all men are mortal…

• we first determine a large circle that contains all mortals; then a smaller circle that contains all men; and only then that fellow. To classify them we fit the circles into each other. The metaphysical conception is therefore constructed with logic and syllogism

What is another example of a syllogism

• “In the Soviet Union, before the last constitution, there was the dictatorship of the proletariat. Dictatorship is dictatorship. In the USSR it is dictatorship. So there was no difference between the USSR, Italy and Germany, countries of dictatorship."

What does this syllogism lead to us missing in this example?

• for whom and on whom the dictatorship is exercised, just as when we praise bourgeois democracy, we are not saying for whose benefit it is exercised.

The fundamental problem with syllogism…

• to see things and the social world as part of separate circles and to bring the circles into each other.

What is an example of this method of thinking being put into practice?

• Germany in 1919, where social democracy, in order to maintain democracy, killed the dictatorship of the proletariat without seeing that by doing so it was allowing capitalism to continue and giving Nazism a grip.

What helped disrupt this method of thinking in the natural sciences specifically biology and zoology?

• Evolution brought in an understanding that there was a connection through evolution of animals and plants and that beings have changed over time.

”while natural science up to the end of the last century was predominantly a collecting science, a science of finished things, in our century it is essentially a systematizing science, a science of the processes, of the origin and development of these things and of the interconnection which binds all these natural processes into one great whole.”

What is the origin or rationale behind the term 'metaphysics'?”

• Metaphysics comes from the Greek meta, which means "beyond", and from physics, the science of the phenomena of the world. Therefore, metaphysics is what deals with things beyond the world.

Who wrote the original rules, that we still use today, on logic

• Aristotle

The explanation of the word "metaphysics"

• metaphysics is a bourgeois philosophy that sees everything as eternal, unchanging and separate. We proceed in reasoning by opposition: we oppose spirit to matter, good to evil, etc., that is to say opposites are taken to be mutually exclusive.
• Metaphysics, mechanism, logic. These three disciplines are always presented together and are called each other. They form a system and can only be understood by each other.

4. Study of dialectics

11. Introduction to the study of dialectics

How does dialectics differ from metaphysics?

• Dialectics is a method of thinking with great precision.

What is a very simple definition of metaphysics and dialectics?

• Metaphysics implies immobility and dialectics implies motion
• Motion and change, which exist in everything which surrounds us, form the basis of dialectics.

How does history show us dialectics

• Nothing ever stays the same. We had slave societies then feudal and capitalist. The study of these societies shows us that the factors permitting the birth of a new society continually and imperceptibly developed within them.

How did metaphysics emerge?

• from the insufficient development of science things were classified and seen as completely separate and unrelated and this carried over into science each subject being seen as unrelated for a while.

How does the development of photography to cinema mirror that of the development of thought

• Pictures were taken of things in their immobility and later in motion. We studied things at rest before studying them in motion

Why?

• my note:Look at the way you or I study things? We usually start by isolating those things and studying them at rest. Look at how we learn a new language.
• the study of things at rest is a necessary stage of dialectical thought—but only an insufficient, fragmentary stage, which must be integrated into the study of things which are becoming.

Why was eighteenth-century materialism metaphysical?

• the materialist concept is linked to the development of all the sciences and among these it was mechanics which developed first because mechanical motion is the simplest kind of motion. It is much easier to study the motion of an apple on a tree which is blowing in the wind than to study the change produced in a ripening apple. The effect of the wind on the apple can be more easily studied than the ripening of the apple. But the former study is “partial” and thus opens the door to metaphysics.

What made this type of thinking materialist and metaphysical?

• it answered the fundamental question of philosophy by saying that the primary factor is matter and it was metaphysical because it considered the universe to be a complex of fixed and mechanical things and because it studied and saw everything from the point of view of mechanic

How was dialectical materialism developed

• First Hegel found that everything in the universe is motion and change, that nothing is isolated, but rather everything is dependent on everything else, and this is how he created dialectics. It is due to Hegel that we speak today of the dialectical motion of the world. What Hegel first grasped was the motion of thought, and he called it naturally dialectics. But he was an idealist because, in short, he finds that both spirit and the universe are in perpetual change, but concludes that changes in spirit determine changes in matter.
• Marx and Engels think that Hegel is right to say that thought and the universe are perpetually changing, but that he is mistaken to declare that it is changes in ideas which determine changes in things. It is, rather, things which give us ideas, and ideas have been altered because things have been altered.