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| map_width = 220px
| map_width = 220px
| capital = Beijing
| capital = Beijing
| largest_city = Shanghai
| largest_city = Chongqing
| government_type = [[Marxist-Leninist]] [[socialist state]]
| government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Marxist-Leninist]] people's republic
| established_event1 = Establishment of the Chinese Soviet Republic
| established_event1 = Unification of China by Qin Shi Huang
| established_date1 = 7 November 1931
| established_date1 = 221 BC
| established_event2 = Establishment of the People's Republic of China
| established_event2 = Founding of the Yuan Dynasty
| established_date2 = 1 October 1949
| established_date2 = 1271 November 5
| population_estimate = 1,463,140,000
| population_estimate = 1,463,140,000
| population_estimate_year    = 2020
| population_estimate_year    = 2020
| leader_title1 = President and General Secretary
| leader_title1 = President and [[General Secretary of the People's Republic of China|General Secretary]]
| leader_name1 = Xi Jinping
| leader_name1 = [[Xi Jinping]]
| leader_title3 = Premier
| leader_title3 = [[Premier of the People's Republic of China|Premier]]
| leader_name3 = Li Keqiang
| leader_name3 = [[Li Keqiang]]
| leader_title2 = Vice President
| leader_title2 = Vice President
| leader_name2 = Wang Qishan
| leader_name2 = [[Wang Qishan]]
}}
|established_date3=1949 October 1|established_event3=Establishment of the People's Republic of China|mode_of_production=[[Primary stage of socialism]]}}
'''China''', officially the '''People's Republic of China''' ('''PRC'''), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population of around 1.4 billion in 2019. It is led by the [[Communist Party of China]] (CPC). The Chinese constitution states that the PRC "is a socialist state under the people's democratic dictatorship led by the working class and based on the alliance of workers and peasants," and that the state organs "apply the principle of democratic centralism."<ref name=":0">Constitution of the People's Republic of China ([https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/China_2018.pdf?lang=en Read in English])</ref>
'''China''', officially the '''People's Republic of China''' ('''PRC'''), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population of around 1.4 billion in 2019. It is led by the [[Communist Party of China]] (CPC). The Chinese constitution states that the PRC "is a socialist state under the people's democratic dictatorship led by the working class and based on the alliance of workers and peasants." and that the state organs "apply the principle of democratic centralism."<ref name=":0">Constitution of the People's Republic of China ([https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/China_2018.pdf?lang=en PDF in English])</ref>


The People's Republic of China is one of only four officially Marxist-Leninist states in the world today (alongside [[Socialist Republic of Vietnam|Vietnam]], [[Lao People's Democratic Republic|Laos]], and [[Republic of Cuba|Cuba]]). Over the last few years it has emerged as the world's leading economic power,<ref>https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2020/10/06/unfavorable-views-of-china-reach-historic-highs-in-many-countries/pg_2020-10-06_global-views-china_0-10/</ref> and as a result has been subjected to near-constant ''demonization'' from Western media and propaganda outlets.
The People's Republic of China is one of only five [[Marxism–Leninism|Marxist-Leninist]] states in the world today (alongside [[Republic of Cuba|Cuba]], [[Lao People's Democratic Republic|Laos]], [[Democratic People's Republic of Korea|People's Korea]] and [[Socialist Republic of Vietnam|Vietnam]]). Over the last few years it has emerged as the world's leading economic power, and as a result has been subjected to near-constant ''demonization'' from Western media and propaganda outlets.<ref>Laura Silver, Kat Devlin and Christine Huang (2020). ''[https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2020/10/06/unfavorable-views-of-china-reach-historic-highs-in-many-countries/ Unfavorable views of China reach historic highs in many countries].'' Pew Resarch Center.</ref><ref>[https://orinocotribune.com/catagorically-debunking-the-claim-that-china-is-imperialist/ Categorically Debunking the Claim that China is Imperialist] by Rainer Shea on [[Orinoco Tribune]]</ref>  


== History ==
== History ==
Chinese history, like the histories of most countries, can be divided cleanly into primitive, slave, and feudal periods. The "capitalist" period, starting from the [[May 4th Movement]] in 1919 and ending with the establishment of socialism in 1956, cannot be considered an era of Chinese history in and of itself but rather as a part of the broader New-Democratic Revolution period (1919-1949). The socialist era, starting from 1956 and currently ongoing, is likewise not an era of Chinese history but is considered part of the People's Republic period (1949-).
In accordance with [[historical materialism]], Chinese history can be divided into [[Primitive communism|primitive]], [[Slavery|slave]], and [[Feudalism|feudal]] eras. Modern Chinese historians do not, however, use the terms "capitalist era" or "socialist era". This is because the capitalist period of Chinese history fits into the broader New-Democratic Revolution period (1919–1949). The socialist era, which began in 1956, is likewise not considered an era of Chinese history but instead is considered part of the People's Republic period (1949–).<ref name=":1">Bai Shouyi (2008). ''An outline history of China.'' Beijing: Foreign Languages Press. ISBN 9787119052960</ref>


=== Semi-Colonial and Semi-Feudal Society (1840-1949) ===
===Semi-colonial and semi-feudal society (1840–1949)===
The era of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society was divided into two parts: The Old Democratic Revolution, which began with the Opium War in 1840 and ended with the May 4th Movement in 1919, and the New Democratic Revolution, which lasted until the founding of the People's Republic in 1949. This 109-year period is also know by some as the "century of humiliation".
The era of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society was divided into two parts: The Old Democratic Revolution, which began with the Opium War in 1840 and ended with the May 4th Movement in 1919, and the New Democratic Revolution, which lasted until the founding of the People's Republic in 1949. This 109-year period is also know by some as the "century of humiliation".<ref name=":1" />


The Old Democratic Revolution is called as such because it was a period of establishing western "democracy" and dismantling feudalism. Rather than being a revolutionary movement by the people of China, it was a revolutionary change caused by the invasion and occupation of China by western powers. It began with the First Opium War when the feudal Qing dynasty tried to restrict the drug trade of opium in China. The United Kingdom, and later the United States of America, responded by declaring war on China.  
==== The Old Democratic Revolution period (1840–1919) ====
The Old Democratic Revolution was a period of establishing western "democracy" and dismantling feudalism, which is where it gets its name from. Rather than being a revolutionary movement by the people of China, it was a revolutionary change caused by the invasion and occupation of China by western powers. It began with the First Opium War when the feudal [[Qing dynasty]] tried to restrict the drug trade of opium in China. The United Kingdom, and later the United States of America, responded by declaring war on China.<ref name=":1" />


The conditions during this occupation were terrible. Notably in the British settlement of Shanghai, signboards were hung up outside parks prohibiting Chinese and dogs inside. The occupying powers forced local Chinese to carry them from place to place, and they also engaged in foot-binding.
The conditions during this occupation were terrible. Notably in the British settlement of Shanghai, signboards were hung up outside parks prohibiting Chinese and dogs inside. The occupying powers forced local Chinese to carry them from place to place, and they also engaged in foot-binding.<ref name=":1" />


The New Democratic Revolution was a revolution by the people of China against the weak Qing dynasty and the occupying western powers. It is known as a democratic revolution because it still accepted the basic ideology of western capitalism, but it was different in that it rejected colonialism and was fought by the people themselves. This revolution successfully brought down the Qing dynasty and established the Republic of China, but this state was even weaker than the Qing dynasty and most of the country was now ruled by warlords.
==== The New Democratic Revolution period (1919–1949) ====
The New Democratic Revolution was a revolution by the people of China against the weak Qing dynasty and the occupying Western powers. It is known as a democratic revolution because it still accepted the basic ideology of Western [[capitalism]], but it was different in that it rejected [[colonialism]] and was fought by the people themselves. This revolution successfully brought down the Qing dynasty and established the Republic of China, but this state was even weaker than the Qing dynasty and most of the country was now ruled by warlords.<ref name=":1" />


According to a study in the ''Journal of Global Health'', China at this time was "one of the most impoverished nations on Earth." To quote:<blockquote>After a century of domination by Europeans, the fall of the Qing Empire was followed by partial Japanese occupation and a 38-year civil war. The vast majority of the population were engaged in subsistence agriculture, and a survey on the causes of death conducted in 1929-31 revealed that more than half of all deaths were caused by infectious diseases.<ref>https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3484775/</ref></blockquote>In a [https://books.google.com/books?id=IZUPXjnGnhEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:%22Amartya+Kumar+Sen%22+china+india+famine&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjGsY2Lx5fjAhVjdt8KHTRIDSoQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q&f=false book] on China and India, Nobel-winning economist Amartya Sen (Harvard University) notes that the New-Democratic Revolution period suffered from "high levels of mortality, undernutrition, and illiteracy." According to a study from the London School of Economics:<blockquote>Western visitors to China in the 1920s and 1930s paint a picture where land scarcity is the predominant cause of high levels of hunger and poverty. Famines were widespread and severe and periods of hunger were a fact of life for many Chinese peasants. Ownership of land was highly unequal. The best estimates from this period suggest that, taken together, landlords (who were rich enough to avoid doing agricultural labor) and rich peasants (who did agricultural labor but also relied heavily on tenants and hire labor) typically owned upward of half the land though their share in the population typically did not exceed 10 percent. Poor peasants and agricultural laborers who owned little or no land formed the majority of the population.<ref>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265935983_Mao'_s_Legacy_Access_to_Land_and_Hunger_in_Modern_China</ref></blockquote>Educational standards in the New-Democratic Revolution period were horrible. According to a study in the journal ''Population Studies'', in 1949 "more than 80 per cent of China's population was illiterate. Enrollment rates in primary and middle schools were abysmal: 20 and 6 per cent, respectively."<ref>https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4331212/</ref> In addition, women's rights were highly curtailed and patriarchal norms were widespread; according to a study in the journal ''Modern China'', this trend continued as Kuomintang rule took root in the Taiwan province.<ref>https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/009770047500100101</ref> All-in-all, the New-Democratic Revolution period can be safely said to have been one of the poorest societies in the world, plagued by starvation, patriarchy, and feudal oppression.
At that time, China was one of the poorest societies in the world, plagued by starvation and feudal oppression. The vast majority of the population was engaged in subsistence agriculture, and a survey on the causes of death conducted in 1929-31 revealed that more than half of all deaths were caused by infectious diseases.<ref name=":2">David Hipgrave (2011). [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3484775/ ''Communicable disease control in China: From Mao to now'']. Journal of Global Health.</ref> Famines were widespread and severe periods of hunger were lived by many Chinese peasants. During this period, China also suffered from illiteracy and high inequality. Estimates from this period suggest that, landlords and rich peasants taken together typically owned upward of half the land even though their share in the population typically did not exceed 10 percent. Poor peasants and agricultural labourers who owned little to no land formed the majority of the population.<ref name=":3">Robin Burgess (2005). ''Mao's legacy: Access to land and hunger in Modern China''. The London School of Economics and Political Science. ([http://econ.lse.ac.uk/staff/rburgess/wp/land3.pdf PDF link])</ref>


=== The Maoist Period (1949-1976) ===
Educational standards during this period were terrible, if not inexistent. In 1949, more than 80 per cent of China's population was illiterate. Enrolment rates in primary and middle schools were abysmal: 20 and 6 per cent, respectively.<ref name=":4">Kimberly Singer Babiarz, Karen Eggleston, Grant Miller & Qiong Zhang (2015). [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4331212/ An exploration of China's mortality decline under Mao: A provincial analysis, 1950–80]. </ref> In addition, women's rights were highly curtailed and patriarchal norms were widespread, and this culture kept growing as Kuomintang rule took root in the Taiwan province.<ref>Norma Diamond (1975). ''Women under Kuomintang rule: Variations on the feminine mystique''. University of Michigan. {{Doi|10.1177/009770047500100101}}</ref>
After the PRC's founding was declared in 1949, an event captured on film,<ref>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UvgLUGRhuwU</ref> the Communists quickly set to work implementing their new agenda. According to the aforementioned study in the ''Journal of Global Health:''<blockquote>The Communists were quick to make good on promises of land-reform and establishment of a national “people’s” government. In 1950 a Marriage Law was enacted, providing equal rights for women, and the first National Health Congress established a focus on rural health, disease prevention through campaigns, and collaboration between western and traditional Chinese medicine.<ref>https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3484775/</ref></blockquote>According to the aforementioned study from the London School of Economics, the land reforms "led to the destruction of feudal power relationships in agriculture," leading to "universal and egalitarian access to land within localities." The reforms also led to a dramatic reduction in poverty and hunger. To quote:<blockquote>Mao's legacy of universal and egalitarian access to land represents a key means of avoiding hunger. This helps us to understand how China has managed to escape the high levels of hunger which typify low income countries.<ref>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265935983_Mao</ref></blockquote>Health outcomes improved dramatically after the Communists took power. To quote from the ''Journal of Global Health:''<blockquote>China’s progress on communicable disease control (CDC) in the 30 years after establishment of the People’s Republic in 1949 is widely regarded as remarkable. Life expectancy soared by around 30 years, infant mortality plummeted and smallpox, sexually transmitted diseases and many other infections were either eliminated or decreased massively in incidence, largely as a result of CDC.</blockquote>The aforementioned study in ''Population Studies'', confirms these findings, noting that "China's growth in life expectancy between 1950 and 1980 ranks as among the most rapid sustained increases in documented global history."<ref>https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4331212/</ref> Another study, this one from the journal ''Health Services Evaluation'', makes similar observations:<blockquote>The health of China’s population improved dramatically during the first 30 years of the People’s Republic, established in 1949. By the mid-1970s, China was already undergoing the epidemiologic transition, years ahead of other nations of similar economic status, and by 1980, life expectancy (67 years) exceeded that of most similarly low-income nations by 7 years.<ref>https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7123409/</ref></blockquote>According to the ''Journal of Global Health,'' these improvements "can be attributed to population mobilization, mass campaigns and a focus on sanitation, hygiene, clean water and clean delivery," as well as "clinical care and continuing public health programs to the masses through community-funded medical schemes and the establishment of community-based health workers."


Education also improved dramatically in the Maoist era. According to the aforementioned study in ''Population Studies:''<blockquote>China made large strides in primary and secondary education under Mao. [...] During the 1950s, capital investments in primary and secondary school infrastructure increased tenfold, and dramatic increases in attendance followed. Primary school enrolment rates rose to 80 per cent by 1958 and to 97 per cent by 1975, and secondary school rates increased to 46 per cent by 1977.<ref>https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4331212/</ref></blockquote>Amartya Sen makes similar observations, noting that literacy was greatly expanded under Mao:<blockquote>China's breakthrough in the field of elementary education had already taken place before the process of economic reform was initiated at the end of the seventies. Census data indicate, for instance, that literacy rates in 1982 for the 15-19 age group were already as high as 96 percent for males and 85 percent for females.</blockquote>These achievements of the Maoist era made possible China's later economic miracle. Amartya Sen states that "the accomplishments relating to education, healthcare, land reforms, and social change in the pre-reform [Maoist] period made significantly positive contributions to the achievements of the post-reform period. This is so not only in terms of their role in sustained high life expectancy and related achievements, but also in providing firm support for economic expansion based on market reforms." In his aforementioned book on the topic, Sen summarizes the achievements of the Maoist period thusly:<blockquote>Because of its radical commitment to the elimination of poverty and to improving living conditions - a commitment in which Maoist as well as Marxist ideas and ideals played an important part - China did achieve many things… [including] The elimination of widespread hunger, illiteracy, and ill health… [a] remarkable reduction in chronic undernourishment… a dramatic reduction of infant and child mortality and a remarkable expansion of longevity.<ref>https://books.google.com/books?id=IZUPXjnGnhEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:%22Amartya+Kumar+Sen%22+china+india+famine&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjGsY2Lx5fjAhVjdt8KHTRIDSoQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q&f=false</ref></blockquote>Of course, with all of this said, it should not be denied that the Maoist era saw some extremely serious problems. Most notable is the Great Leap Forward, which was a colossal failure, contributing to the Great Chinese Famine. A study in the ''Journal of Health Economics'' notes that the famine had major long-term effects on health and economic development in China, leading to reduced population height, and having a negative impact on labor supply and earnings of famine survivors.<ref>https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17289187/</ref> The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution resulted in overzealous local cadres taking the situation out of control, destroying sites of heritage and recklessly denouncing people in their community. Even still, it cannot be denied that the Maoist period brought massive gains to the Chinese people, massively improving health, education, and nutrition, and laying the groundwork for China's later economic development.
===The First Generation (1949–1976)===
The first generation of leadership covers the extent of time that [[Zhou Enlai]] was the premier of the PRC. Mao Zedong was extremely influential in Chinese politics at this time, but he held the office Chairman of the PRC for only 9 years. For the rest of this 27 year long period, Mao Zedong was the General Secretary of the CPC. This generation was mainly characterized by Mao Zedong's political theory now known as [[Mao Zedong Thought]].<ref>''The historic contribution made by the first generation of the party's central collective leadership to the creation of socialism with Chinese characteristics in the new era'' (Chinese: [http://dangshi.people.com.cn/n/2013/1128/c85037-23683646.html 党的第一代中央领导集体为新时期开创中国特色社会主义所作的历史性贡献])</ref>


=== Socialism with Chinese Characteristics ===
The first generation marks the founding of the People's Republic of China, an event captured on film.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UvgLUGRhuwU Mao Zedong 毛泽东 declares the Peoples' Republic of China 1949]. YouTube. Retrieved 27 May 2021.</ref> The newly victorious socialist government promoted remarkable changes in Chinese society: establishing land reform, providing equal rights for women, seeing through campaigns for disease prevention and decreasing infant mortality.<ref name=":2" /> During this period, China's growth in life expectancy ranks as among the most rapid sustained increases in documented global history,<ref name=":4" /><ref>David Hipgrave, Yan Mu (2018). [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7123409/ ''Health system in China'']. Health Services Evaluation.</ref> mainly because of the socialist government's radical commitment to the elimination of poverty and to improving living conditions of the people; an effort which has brought the elimination of widespread hunger, illiteracy, and ill health, remarkable reduction in chronic undernourishment and child mortality, and a dramatic expansion of longevity.<ref name=":5">Amartya Kumar Sen (2006). ''Perspectives on the Economic and Human Development of India and China''. Universitätsverlag Göttingen. ISBN: 978-3-938616-63-5</ref> Systematic efforts to vaccinate the population against polio, measles, diphtheria, whooping cough, scarlet fever, cholera and other diseases were rapid and reputedly successful, virtually eradicating smallpox within the span of only three years.<ref name=":4" />
In 1978, in response to a perceived lack of necessary economic progress, the Communist Party of China embarked on an ambitious reform program, leading to the development of socialism with Chinese characteristics (SWCC). These reform programs have produced impressive results; according to a 2020 study in the ''Journal of Economic Issues:''<blockquote>Succinctly, in terms of economic development, the model has simultaneously achieved the following, all on unprecedented scales, particularly since the turn of the century: rapid expansion in both investment and consumption, rapid rises in both productivity and the wage rate, and rapid increases in job creation. All these have provided the necessary material conditions for broader social development: the fundamental enhancement of the power of labor, the reconstruction of a publicly-funded comprehensive healthcare system, and the acceleration of the process of urbanization.<ref>https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00213624.2020.1791579</ref></blockquote>Despite these achievements, many leftists take little-or-no interest in SWCC, arguing that it is simply a form of "state capitalism." However, this ignores the reality of how China's economy is really structured. In her book ''The Transformation of Chinese Socialism'', political scientist Lin Chun (London School of Economics) lists some of the key characteristics of the Chinese economy:<blockquote>[Including] the relatively strong "human capital," accumulated through decades (including in the pre-reform period) of investment in basic needs, public education and health care; state and rural collective ownership of the land; the dominant public sector that retains the nation's strategic industries; government sponsorship of trade and technology transfer; state regulation of the movement of foreign capital, major financial transactions, and currency exchange; coordination between the center and provinces in fiscal and tax management, public spending, and developing regional comparative advantages; booming township and village enterprises (TVES); a countrywide increase in household incomes (including remittances sent home by migrant workers) and, therefore, a "consuming revolution" of a major increase in consumption.<ref>https://www.dukeupress.edu/the-transformation-of-chinese-socialism</ref></blockquote>These characteristics (particularly the abolition of private ownership in land, the "dominant public sector," and state control of trade and foreign capital) are clearly not those of a capitalist economy, and instead point towards China pursuing a socialist model of development.


Another good discussion of this topic may be found in a 2020 paper in the ''Review of Radical Political Economics'', which argues that "primitive socialist accumulation - operating in conflict with capitalist accumulation - offers a more appropriate theoretical framework for studying China’s development."<ref>https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0486613419888298?icid=int.sj-abstract.similar-articles.3</ref> In other words, China is not capitalist, but is rather in the primary stage of socialism.
The land reforms led to the destruction of feudal [[relations of production]] in agriculture, leading to virtually universal access to land and a dramatic reduction in poverty and hunger.<ref name=":3" /> Education also improved dramatically in this period. During the 1950s, investments in primary and secondary school infrastructure increased considerably, and dramatic increases in attendance followed. Primary school enrollment rates rose to 80% by 1958 and to 97% by 1975, and secondary school rates increased to 46% by 1977.<ref name=":4" />


For those who remain unconvinced, I would remind them of what Lenin said in his pamphlet ''The Impending Catastrophe and How to Combat It:''<blockquote>You will find that, given a really revolutionary-democratic state, state-monopoly capitalism inevitably and unavoidably implies a step, and more than one step, towards socialism! For if a huge capitalist undertaking becomes a monopoly, it means that it serves the whole nation. If it has become a state monopoly, it means that the state (i.e., the armed organization of the population, the workers and peasants above all, provided there is revolutionary democracy) directs the whole undertaking. In whose interest? Either in the interest of the landowners and capitalists, in which case we have not a revolutionary-democratic, but a reactionary-bureaucratic state, an imperialist republic. Or in the interest of revolutionary democracy—and then it is a step towards socialism. '''For socialism is merely the next step forward from state-capitalist monopoly. Or, in other words, socialism is merely state-capitalist monopoly which is made to serve the interests of the whole people and has to that extent ceased to be capitalist monopoly.'''<ref>https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1917/ichtci/11.htm#v25zz99h-360</ref></blockquote>This perfectly describes the situation in the People's Republic of China: while there are capitalists and markets, they are under the constant control of the Communist Party and the proletarian state. In addition, state-owned enterprises continue to play an essential role in the Chinese economy, as we will shortly see.
Even though China achieved many positive changes in society, the first generation has experienced problems in their governance, most notably during the [[Great Leap Forward]], which was a colossal failure, contributing to the Great Chinese Famine, which had major long-term effects on health and economic development in China, leading to reduced population height, and having a negative impact on labor supply and earnings of famine survivors.<ref>Yuyu Chen, Li-An Zhou (2007). ''The long-term health and economic consequences of the 1959-1961 famine in China''. Journal of Health Economics. {{Doi|10.1016/j.jhealeco.2006.12.006}}</ref> Another campaign, the [[Cultural Revolution|Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution]] resulted in overzealous local cadres taking the situation out of control, destroying sites of heritage and recklessly denouncing people in their community.{{Helper}}


=== Growth and Poverty Reduction Under SWCC ===
===The Second Generation (1976–1992)===
Having discussed the nature of SWCC, we can now look into some of its achievements. To begin with, poverty in the PRC has been dramatically reduced. According to a 2019 report from Philip Alston (UN Special Rapporteur on Extreme Poverty and Human Rights):<blockquote>China’s achievements in alleviating extreme poverty in recent years, and in meeting highly ambitious targets for improving social well-being, have been extraordinary. [...] Over the past three decades, and with particular speed in recent years, China has lifted hundreds of millions of people out of poverty. This is a staggering achievement and is a credit to those responsible.<ref>https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=20402</ref></blockquote>Similarly, a 2020 study in the ''China Economic Review'' notes that income growth has been "widely shared nationwide," resulting in "substantial, ongoing rural poverty reduction" throughout the country. A major milestone was reached with the recent announcement (acknowledged in Western media outlets, such as CNN) that the last poverty-stricken counties in China have been delisted, "leaving no county in a state of absolute poverty countrywide."<ref>https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1043951X20300626</ref>
The second generation of leadership covers the extent of time that [[Deng Xiaoping]] was influential in Chinese politics. Deng Xiaoping only held two positions of power during this time: Chair of the Central Military Commission of the PRC for 4 years, and Chair of the Central Military Commission of the CPC for 8 years. For the rest of this 16 year long period, Deng Xiaoping held no positions of power but was still considered the most influential figure in Chinese politics. This generation was mainly characterized by the development of [[Socialism with Chinese characteristics]].<ref>''The whole process of the formation of the central collective leadership with Deng Xiaoping as the core''. (Chinese: [http://dangshi.people.com.cn/n/2013/0608/c85037-21793779.html 邓小平为核心的中央领导集体形成始末])</ref>


Malnutrition has continued to decline massively in China over the last several decades. According to the University of Oxford's Our World in Data project, China now has a lower rate of death from malnutrition than the United States,<ref>https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/malnutrition-death-rates?tab=chart&country=CHN~USA</ref> as well as a lower rate of extreme poverty, despite having a significantly lower GDP-per-capita.<ref>https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/share-of-the-population-living-in-extreme-poverty?tab=chart&time=1990..latest&country=CHN~USA&region=World</ref>
The reform programs introduced in this period produced impressive results. The Chinese economy saw a rapid expansion in both investment and consumption, rapid rises in both productivity and the wage rate, and rapid increases in job creation, which provided the necessary material conditions for broader social development, including the reconstruction of a publicly-funded healthcare system and acceleration of the process of urbanization.<ref>Dic Lo (2020). ''State-owned enterprises in Chinese economic transformation: Institutional functionality and credibility in alternative perspectives''. Journal of Economic Issues. {{Doi|10.1080/00213624.2020.1791579}}</ref>
===The Third Generation (1992–2002) ===
The third generation of leadership covers the extent of time that [[Jiang Zemin]] was president of the PRC.<ref>''The top priority of the third generation of collective leadership''.(Chinese: [http://cpc.people.com.cn/GB/33839/34943/34944/34947/2617549.html 第三代领导集体的当务之急])</ref> It was mainly characterized by Jiang Zemin's political theory known as the "Three Represents".<ref>''What is the scientific meaning of "Three Represents"?'' (Chinese:[http://cpc.people.com.cn/GB/64156/64157/4418474.html “三个代表”的科学含义是什么?])</ref>


Economic growth has also increased dramatically. According to a study from the National Bureau of Economic Research, "reforms yielded a significant growth and structural transformation differential. GDP growth is 4.2 percentage points higher and the share of the labor force in agriculture is 23.9 percentage points lower compared with the continuation of the pre-1978 policies."<ref>https://www.nber.org/papers/w21397</ref> These results are remarkably impressive, and indicate that SWCC has been successful at its principal goals of developing China's productive forces and meeting the needs of the proletariat.
The Three Represents theory refers to the following:


=== Chinese "Imperialism" and the Belt and Road Initiative ===
#Representing the development trend of China’s advanced productive forces.
China is often accused (typically by Western pseudo-leftists) of being an "imperialist" state, due primarily to its investments in Africa, as part of the Belt and Road Initiative. These critics ignore the actual views of the African people themselves, who overwhelmingly approve of China's role in their economic development.<ref>https://www.dw.com/en/africans-approve-of-china-says-afrobarometer/a-36214106</ref> In addition, the extent of Chinese involvement in Africa is smaller than often believed; according to a 2019 paper from the Center for Economic Policy Research, "China’s influence in Africa is much smaller than is generally believed, though its engagement on the continent is increasing. Chinese investment in Africa, while less extensive than often assumed, has the potential to generate jobs and development on the continent."<ref>https://pedl.cepr.org/publications/chinese-investment-africa-how-much-do-we-know</ref>
#Representing the orientation of China's advanced culture.
#Representing the fundamental interests of the overwhelming majority of the Chinese people.


A 2018 study in the ''Review of Development Finance'' also found that Chinese investment in Africa raises incomes in the African nations that receive the investment, in a similar way to foreign investments by other nations. The author state that these results "suggest that the win-win deal China claims when investing in Africa may hold, and Chinese investment contributes to growth in Africa. Put differently, Chinese investment is mutually beneficial for both China and Africa."<ref>https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1879933718300551</ref>
=== The Fourth Generation (2002–2012)===
The fourth generation of leadership covers the extent of time that [[Hu Jintao]] was the president of the PRC, and that Wen Jiabo was premier. It was mainly characterized by Hu Jintao's political theory known as the scientific outlook on development.  


The economist Yanis Varoufakis discussed the topic in a recent lecture given at the Cambridge forum. He helpfully debunks a number of myths on the matter.
===The Fifth Generation (2012–present)===
The fifth generation of leadership covers the extent of time that [[Xi Jinping]] has been the president of the PRC, and that Li Keqiang has been the premier.<ref>''The fifth generation of collective leadership in China'' (Chinese: [https://www.cqwcsy.com/news/55559/ 中国第五代领导集体])</ref>


=== Marxist Political Economy in Contemporary China ===
The biggest project of the fifth generation of leadership has been the [[Belt and Road Initiative]]. Other endeavors made during this generation include the Chinese Space Station, the Two Centennial Goals, and Green Development.  
In 2020, Xi Jinping gave a speech to the Politburo of the Communist Party of China, in which he made clear the continued importance that the CPC places on Marxist political economy. To quote:<blockquote>Marxist political economy is an important component of Marxism, and required learning for our efforts to uphold and develop Marxism. [...] There are people who believe Marxist political economy and ''Das Kapital'' are obsolete, but this is an arbitrary and erroneous judgment. Setting aside more distant events and looking at just the period since the global financial crisis, we can see that many capitalist countries have remained in an economic slump, with serious unemployment problems, intensifying polarization, and deepening social divides. The facts tell us that the contradictions between the socialization of production and the private possession of the means of production still exist, but they are manifested in ways and show characteristics that are somewhat different.<ref>http://en.qstheory.cn/2020-11/08/c_560906.htm</ref></blockquote>He goes on to list a number of principles guiding the implementation of Marxist political economy in the PRC:<blockquote>First, we must uphold a people-centered approach to development. Development is for the people; this is the fundamental position of Marxist political economy. [...] Second, we must uphold the new development philosophy. Third, we must uphold and improve our basic socialist economic system. According to Marxist political economy, ownership of the means of production is the core of the relations of production, and this determines a society's fundamental nature and the orientation of its development. Since reform and opening up... we have stressed the importance of continuing to make public ownership the mainstay while allowing ownership of other forms to develop side by side, and made it clear that both the public and non-public sectors are important components of the socialist market economy as well as crucial foundations for our nation's economic and social development. [...] Fourth, we must uphold and improve our basic socialist distribution system. [...] Fifth, we must uphold reforms to develop the socialist market economy. [...] Sixth, we must uphold the fundamental national policy of opening up.</blockquote>From this, it should be quite clear that Marxism (specifically Marxism-Leninism and Mao Zedong Thought) retains a dominant role in the People's Republic of China, serving as the guiding ideology of the Communist Party.
=== Xinjiang Conflict ===
Similar to [[Operation Cyclone]], where the US supported Islamic fundamentalism to destabilize Afghanistan, the US has supported Islamic fundamentalist separatists in the Xinjiang region of China. China's response to this upsurge of terrorism and separatism has been to construct re-education camps which have been decried by the Western press in an effort to accuse China of running "concentration camps" and "death camps". Western countries have signed a letter criticizing China, while a counter-letter was signed by countries in the Muslim World as well as progressive states such as Cuba and Bolivia (under the socialist government of Evo Morales, prior to the US-backed coup)<ref>https://www.qiaocollective.com/en/education/xinjiang</ref>


== The Mao Era - A More Detailed Analysis ==
The main political contribution made during the fifth generation has been [[Xi Jinping Thought]] but other contributions have been made such as the [[Core Socialist Values]], and the Chinese Dream.  
Most people (including many who call themselves socialists) have a very deceptive impression of Mao Zedong. They tend to rely on bourgeois myths and fictions as their only sources of information about him, and they thus lack a proper understanding of his immense achievements (which are ignored), as well as his flaws (which are exaggerated and mischaracterized).


Because Mao's ideology continues to be the driving force behind the most active and revolutionary sector of the international communist movement (as demonstrated by the Naxalites in India, the NPA in the Philippines, and many others), it is important that we have a correct understanding of Maoist policies, and the immense gains they made for the Chinese people.
== Administrative Divisions==
[[File:China.svg|thumb|alt=|A map of China]]
China has 34 province-level divisions: 23 provinces, 5 autonomous regions, 4 municipalities directly under the Central Government, and 2 special administrative region.<ref>Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China [https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/ljzg_665465/zgjk_665467/3572_665469/t1140993.shtml Administrative Division System]</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
!Name
!Seat of Government
!Area (100,000 km<sup>2</sup>)
! Population (100,000)
|-
|Beijing Municipality
|Beijing
| 0.168
|125.7
|-
| Tianjin Municipality
|Tianjin
|0.113
| 95.9
|-
|Hebei Province
|Shijiazhuang
|1.900
|661.4
|-
|Shanxi Province
|Taiyuan
|1.560
|320.4
|-
|Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region
|Hohhot
|11.830
|236.2
|-
|Liaoning Province
|Shenyang
|1.457
|417.1
|-
| Jilin Province
|Changchun
|1.870
|265.8
|-
|Heilongjiang Province
|Harbin
|4.690
|379.2
|-
| Shanghai Municipality
|Shanghai
|0.062
|147.4
|-
| Jiangsu Province
|Nanjing
| 1.026
|721.3
|-
|Zhejiang Province
|Hangzhou
|1.018
|447.5
|-
|Anhui Province
|Hefei
|1.390
|623.7
|-
| Fujian Province
|Fuzhou
|1.200
|331.6
|-
|Jiangxi Province
| Nanchang
|1.666
|423.1
|-
|Shandong Province
| Jinan
|1.530
| 888.3
|-
|Henan Province
|Zhengzhou
|1.670
| 938.7
|-
|Hubei Province
|Wuhan
|1.874
|593.8
|-
|Hunan Province
|Changsha
|2.100
|653.2
|-
|Guangdong Province
|Guangzhou
|1.860
|727.0
|-
|Guangxi Autonomous Region
|Nanning
|2.363
| 471.3
|-
| Hainan Province
|Haikou
|0.340
|76.2
|-
|Chongqing Municipality
|Chongqing
|0.820
|307.5
|-
|Sichuan Province
| Chengdu
|4.880
| 855.0
|-
|Guizhou Province
|Guiyang
|1.700
|371.0
|-
|Yunnan Province
| Kunming
| 3.940
| 419.2
|-
|[[Tibet Autonomous Region]]
|Lhasa
|12.200
|25.6
|-
|Shaanxi Province
|Xi'an
|2.050
| 361.8
|-
|Gansu Province
| Lanzhou
|4.500
|254.3
|-
|Qinghai Province
|Xining
|7.200
|51.0
|-
|Ningxia Autonomous Region
|Yinchuan
|0.664
| 54.3
|-
| [[Xinjiang Autonomous Region]]
|Urumqi
|16.000
|177.4
|-
| [[Hong Kong Special Administrative Region]]
|Hong Kong
|0.01092
|68.4
|-
|Macao Special Administrative Region
|Macao
|0.00024
|4.3
|-
|[[Taiwan Province]]
|
|0.360
|217.4
|}


=== General Overview of Living Standards ===
==Economy==
Our primary source in this section will be an in-depth study conducted by Amartya Sen, Professor of Economics at Harvard University, and fellow of Trinity College at Cambridge University. Sen was awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences for his contributions to development and welfare economics, including his work comparing living standards in the People's Republic of China (particularly during the Maoist period) to those in India.<ref>https://books.google.com/books?id=IZUPXjnGnhEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:%22Amartya+Kumar+Sen%22+china+india+famine&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjGsY2Lx5fjAhVjdt8KHTRIDSoQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q&f=false</ref>
While this section is under development, here are a few sources for us to take a look: <ref>Sam-Kee Cheng (2020). ''Primitive socialist accumulation in China: An alternative view on the anomalies of Chinese “capitalism”.'' {{Doi|10.1177/0486613419888298}}</ref> China controls strategic resources such as rare earth minerals as well as silicon chips, which are both valuable to high-technology industries.<ref>https://youtu.be/jlShNCKx8rw</ref>


==Governance==


===Healthcare===
In the Maoist period, China built one of the developing world's most robust public healthcare systems, based on rural primary care, barefoot doctors, and regular mass campaigns, known as "patriotic health campaigns." Since the beginning of the reform period, China's healthcare system has gone through a number of phases. After an unfortunate period of regression and privatization, China has spent the last decade making rapid progress towards a new universal healthcare system. A 2020 study in the ''British Medical Journal (BMJ)'' summarizes many of the goals and programs of China's recent health reforms:<blockquote>Priority was given to expanding the scope and health service package of the basic insurance coverage, improving provider payment mechanisms, as well as increasing the financing level, fiscal subsidies and reimbursement rates. [...] The government has increased investment in primary care, with initiatives that include strengthening the infrastructure of primary healthcare (PHC) facilities, expanding human resources for primary care through incentives and supporting projects, establishing a general practitioner system and improving the capacity of PHC personnel through training and education, such as general practice training and continuous medical education programmes. [...] The ‘equalization of basic public health services’ policy implemented the national BPHS programme and the crucial public health service (CPHS) programme. [...] This policy seeks to achieve universal availability and promote a more equitable provision of basic health services to all urban and rural citizens.<ref>Wenjuan Tao, Zhi Zeng, et al. ''Towards universal health coverage: lessons from 10 years of healthcare reform in China.'' BMJ Global Health. {{Doi|10.1136/bmjgh-2019-002086}}</ref></blockquote>The study goes on to note that China has made significant progress towards meeting its reform goals, and building a developed and equitable universal healthcare system:<blockquote>During the past 10 years since the latest round of healthcare reform, China made steady progress in achieving the reform goals and UHC [i.e. universal health coverage].</blockquote>Another paper, also from the ''BMJ,'' summarizes the recent improvements in China's health outcomes, as well as access to, and cost of, healthcare:<blockquote>The results include the following: out-of-pocket expenditures as a percentage of current health expenditures in China have dropped dramatically from 60.13% in 2000 to 35.91% in 2016; the health insurance coverage of the total population jumped from 22.1% in 2003 to 95.1% in 2013; the average life expectancy increased from 72.0 to 76.4, maternal mortality dropped from 59 to 29 per 100 000 live births, the under-5 mortality rate dropped from 36.8 to 9.3 per 1000 live births, and neonatal mortality dropped from 21.4 to 4.7 per 1000 live births between 2000 and 2017; and so on.<ref>Wenjuan Tao, Zhi Zeng, et al. ''Towards universal health coverage: achievements and challenges of 10 years of healthcare reform in China.'' BMJ Global Health. {{Doi|10.1136/bmjgh-2019-002087}}</ref></blockquote>In short, while China's healthcare system is not perfect, it is certainly moving in the right direction. As with many other aspects of China's socialist construction, this provides a model for other developing nations; according to the aforementioned ''BMJ'' study:<blockquote>The lessons learnt from China could help other nations improve UHC in sustainable and adaptive ways, including continued political support, increased health financing and a strong PHC system as basis. The experience of the rapid development of UHC in China can provide a valuable mode for countries (mainly LMICs) planning their own path further on in the UHC journey.</blockquote>This is another benefit of China's rise to prominence on the world stage. China demonstrates to the world that it is possible for a desperately poor country to rise from poverty, develop its economy, and meet the needs of its people.


The results of Sen's study can be summarized by the following remark, in which he discusses China's decidedly superior achievements, and attributes them directly to the socialist ideology of the Maoist period:<blockquote>Because of its radical commitment to the elimination of poverty and to improving living conditions - a commitment in which Maoist as well as Marxist ideas and ideals played an important part - China did achieve many things that the Indian leadership failed to press for and pursue with any vigor. The elimination of widespread hunger, illiteracy, and ill health falls solidly in this category. When state action operates in the right direction, the results can be quite remarkable, as is illustrated by the social achievements of the pre-reform [Maoist] period.</blockquote>Another important comment summarizing the findings of the study is as follows:<blockquote>We argue, in particular, that the accomplishments relating to education, healthcare, land reforms, and social change in the pre-reform [Maoist] period made significantly positive contributions to the achievements of the post-reform period. This is so not only in terms of their role in sustained high life expectancy and related achievements, but also in providing firm support for economic expansion based on market reforms.</blockquote>Sen states here that the Maoist period saw enormous increases in quality of life for the Chinese people, as well as important economic developments, without which the economic expansion following the 1979 market reforms most likely could not have taken place.
===Democracy and Popular Opinion===
Polls conducted by Western researchers have consistently found that the Chinese people have a high level of support for their government, and for the Communist Party. A 2020 analysis by the China Data Lab (based at UC San Diego) found that support for the government has been increasing as of late.<ref>Lei Guang, Margaret Roberts, Yiqing Xu and Jiannan Zhao (2020). ''[http://chinadatalab.ucsd.edu/viz-blog/pandemic-sees-increase-in-chinese-support-for-regime-decrease-in-views-towards-us/ Pandemic sees Increase in Chinese support for regime, decrease in views towards the U.S.]'' China Data Lab.</ref> Similar results were found in a 2016 survey done by Harvard University's Ash Center:<blockquote>The survey team found that compared to public opinion patterns in the U.S., in China there was very high satisfaction with the central government. In 2016, the last year the survey was conducted, 95.5 percent of respondents were either “relatively satisfied” or “highly satisfied” with Beijing. In contrast to these findings, Gallup reported in January of this year that their latest polling on U.S. citizen satisfaction with the American federal government revealed only 38 percent of respondents were satisfied with the federal government.<ref>Dan Harsha (2020). ''[https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2020/07/long-term-survey-reveals-chinese-government-satisfaction/ Taking China’s pulse].'' The Harvard Gazette.</ref></blockquote>It is worth noting that the Chinese people are significantly less satisfied with local government than they are with the central government. Still, these results disprove the common notion that the Chinese people are ruled by an iron fisted regime that they do not want. Indeed, one official from the Ash Center noted that their findings "run counter to the general idea that these people are marginalized and disfavored by policies." As he states:<blockquote>We tend to forget that for many in China, and in their lived experience of the past four decades, each day was better than the next.</blockquote>In addition, most Chinese people are satisfied with the level of democracy in the PRC. A 2018 study in the ''International Political Science Review'' notes that "surveys suggest that the majority of Chinese people feel satisfied with the level of democracy in China." However, the study notes that "people who hold liberal democratic values" are more likely to be dissatisfied with the state of democracy in China. By contrast, those who hold a "substantive" view of democracy (i.e. one based on the idea that the state should focus on providing for the material needs of the people) are more satisfied.<ref>Yida Zhai (2018). ''Popular conceptions of democracy and democratic satisfaction in China''. International Political Science Review. {{Doi|10.1177/0192512118757128}}</ref>


Sen notes that during the Maoist period, a "remarkable reduction in chronic undernourishment took place," attributing this to the socialist policies implemented by Mao's government:<blockquote>The casual processes through which the reduction of undernourishment was achieved involved extensive state action including redistributive policies, nutritional support, and of course health care (since undernourishment is frequently caused by parasitic diseases and other illnesses).</blockquote>Sen focuses more attention on the remarkable advances in healthcare during the Maoist period:<blockquote>China's achievements in the field of health during the pre-reform period include a dramatic reduction of infant and child mortality and a remarkable expansion of longevity.</blockquote>It is also noted that China's life expectancy approximately ''doubled'' during the Maoist period, from approx. 35 years in 1949, to 68 years in 1981 (when Dengist reforms began to take effect). This is further elaborated on in the next source.
While the Chinese government contains authoritarian elements, it also has elements of genuine democracy. An example of this may be found in the National People's Congress, China's primary legislative body. While Western media has typically labeled the NPC as a simple rubberstamping body for the Central Committee, the facts indicate that this is not entirely true. A 2016 study in the ''Journal of Legislative Studies'' found that the NPC "is no longer a minimal or ‘rubber-stamp’ legislature," noting that "the NPC does play an important role in the whole political system, especially in legislation, though the NPC has typically been under the control of China's Communist Party."<ref>Wenbo Chen (2016). ''Is the label ‘minimal legislature’ still appropriate? The role of the National People's Congress in China's political system''. The Journal of Legislative Studies. {{Doi|10.1080/13572334.2015.1134909}}</ref>


On the issue of education, Sen notes that the huge improvements (including dramatic increases in literacy) can be attributed primary to the pre-reform Maoist period:<blockquote>China's breakthrough in the field of elementary education had already taken place before the process of economic reform was initiated at the end of the seventies. Census data indicate, for instance, that literacy rates in 1982 for the 15-19 age group were already as high as 96 percent for males and 85 percent for females.</blockquote>Let us examine the issue of public health in more detail.
Many of the other claims surrounding authoritarianism in China are highly overblown, to say the least. For instance, an [https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/11/16/chinas-orwellian-social-credit-score-isnt-real/ article] in ''Foreign Policy'' (the most orthodox of liberal policy journals) notes that the Chinese social credit system was massively exaggerated and distorted in Western media. An [https://www.wired.com/story/china-social-credit-score-system/ article] in the publication ''Wired'' discusses how many of these overblown perceptions came to be. None of this is to suggest that China is a perfect democracy, with zero flaws; it certainly has issues relating to transparency, treatment of prisoners, etc. That being said, it is far from the totalitarian nightmare that imperialist media generally depicts it as being.


=== Further Research on Public Health and Life Expectancy ===
===Public Ownership===
Another excellent source on public health in Maoist China comes from a study in the journal ''Population Studies'', in a study conducted by researchers from Stanford University and the National Bureau for Economic Research. One important comment is as follows<blockquote>China's growth in life expectancy at birth from 35–40 years in 1949 to 65.5 years in 1980 is among the most rapid sustained increases in documented global history.<ref>https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4331212/</ref></blockquote>This alone goes to show the massive benefits attained by the socialist policies under Mao Zedong. More important information is provided in the study, dealing with hospital and medical resources:<blockquote>Physician and hospital supply grew dramatically under Mao due to a variety of factors (including increases in government financing, the introduction of social insurance for urban public employees, and the launch of China's Rural Cooperative Medical System in the mid-1950's). Rural Cooperative Medical Schemes (CMS) were vigorously promoted and became widespread in the late 1960's as part of the Cultural Revolution.</blockquote>The study confirms Sen's analysis of education:<blockquote>China made large strides in primary and secondary education under Mao.</blockquote>It also quotes other research which found that the rapid gains in Chinese healthcare can be attributed to the specific socialist policies implemented:<blockquote>China's mortality decline between 1953 and 1957, which resembles that of the US between 1900 and 1930, was “primarily due to the unique social organization of Chinese public health practices.</blockquote>Note that China achieved in four years what the United States took thirty years to accomplish, due to their differing systems (i.e. socialism vs. capitalism). The study also confirms the immense success of Maoist vaccination programs:<blockquote>Systematic efforts to vaccinate the population against polio, measles, diphtheria, whooping cough, scarlet fever, and cholera were rapid and reputedly successful (China nearly eradicated smallpox within the span of only three years, with the last documented cases occurring in Tibet and Yunnan in 1960).</blockquote>Additional citations for the claims in the above quotes are provided in the original study.
Contrary to the popular perception that China's growth has been the result of a transition to capitalism, the evidence shows that public ownership continues to play a key growth-driving role in the PRC's economy. According to the aforementioned 2020 study in the ''Review of Radical Political Economics'', "strategic industries, which Lenin called 'the commanding heights of economy,' are still state-owned and have played a very important role in China’s economic development."<ref>https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0486613419888298?icid=int.sj-abstract.similar-articles.3</ref> The author notes that "after decades of market reform, China’s state sector, rather than disappearing or being marginalized, has become a leader in strategic sectors and the driver of its investment-led growth." To learn more, we would recommend the book ''The Basic Economic System of China'', which goes into this issue in much more depth.<ref>Changhong Pei, Chunxue Yang, Xinming Yang (2019). ''The Basic Economic System of China.'' Beijing: China Social Sciences Press. ISBN 978-981-13-6895-0 ([http://libgen.rs/book/index.php?md5=07DE5CA4B3F3C14139975D1A9D668FC8 Library Genesis link])</ref>


=== Analysis of the Great Chinese Famine - Comparison to Capitalist India ===
===Growth and Poverty Reduction ===
In analyzing this topic, we may look to another work by Amartya Sen, his book ''Hunger and Public Action,'' written with John Dreze. Sen and Dreze point out that, while the Chinese famine was devastating, it pales in comparison to the ordinary mortality rates which occur under capitalism in an otherwise comparable nation like India:<blockquote>...it is important to note that despite the gigantic size of excess mortality in the Chinese famine, the extra mortality in India from regular deprivation in normal times vastly overshadows the former. Comparing India’s death rate of 12 per thousand with China’s of 7 per thousand, and applying that difference to the Indian population of 781 million in 1986, we get an estimate of excess normal mortality in India of 3.9 million per year. This implies that every eight years or so more people die in India because of its higher regular death rate than died in China in the gigantic famine of 1958 – 61. India seems to manage to fill its cupboard with more skeletons every eight years than China put there in its years of shame.<ref>https://scholar.harvard.edu/sen/publications/hunger-and-public-action</ref></blockquote>This comes out to more than ''100 million'' excess deaths in India alone from 1947 (when India become independent) to 1980. As Paul Heideman put it in an article for ''Jacobin'':<blockquote>In other words, though India experienced no concentrated period of starvation which can be easily identified and hung around the neck of a particular ideology, its ordinary conditions for the latter half of the twentieth century, in which an extraordinarily unequal distribution of land obtained, created an excess mortality that, over the long term, dwarfed that of the worst famine of the century.<ref>https://jacobinmag.com/2018/08/capitalism-socialism-khmer-rouge-cambodia-china-famine-friedersdorf</ref></blockquote>This demonstrates the effects that capitalism has on a developing nation. This is all the more shocking when compared to the immense gains made in the People's Republic of China, described in the earlier sections of this discussion.
According to a 2019 report from Philip Alston (UN Special Rapporteur on Extreme Poverty and Human Rights):<blockquote>China’s achievements in alleviating extreme poverty in recent years, and in meeting highly ambitious targets for improving social well-being, have been extraordinary. [...] Over the past three decades, and with particular speed in recent years, China has lifted hundreds of millions of people out of poverty. This is a staggering achievement and is a credit to those responsible.<ref>UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) (2016). ''[https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=20402 End-of-mission statement on China, by Professor Philip Alston, United Nations Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights]''.</ref></blockquote>Similarly, a 2020 study in the ''China Economic Review'' notes that income growth has been "widely shared nationwide," resulting in "substantial, ongoing rural poverty reduction" throughout the country. A major milestone was reached with the recent announcement (acknowledged in Western media outlets, such as CNN) that the last poverty-stricken counties in China have been delisted, "leaving no county in a state of absolute poverty countrywide."<ref>Chuliang Luo, Shi Li, Terry Sicular (2020). ''The long-term evolution of national income inequality and rural poverty in China''. China Economic Review. {{Doi|10.1016/j.chieco.2020.101465}}</ref>


=== Conclusion ===
Malnutrition has continued to decline massively in China over the last several decades. According to the University of Oxford's Our World in Data project, China now has a lower rate of death from malnutrition than the United States,<ref>Our World in Data. ''[https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/malnutrition-death-rates?tab=chart&country=CHN~USA Death rate from malnutrition, 1990 to 2017].''</ref> as well as a lower rate of extreme poverty, despite having a significantly lower GDP-per-capita.<ref>Our World in Data. ''[https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/share-of-the-population-living-in-extreme-poverty?tab=chart&time=1990..latest&country=CHN~USA&region=World Share of the population living in extreme poverty, 1990 to 2016]''</ref>
The People's Republic of China under Mao Zedong made enormous strides in living standards, dramatically bettering the lives of hundreds of millions of people. While the bourgeois establishment continues to misrepresent and distort the legacy of Mao Zedong, he remains an inspirational figure to the billions of people around the world who have benefited, either directly (via the improvements mentioned above) or indirectly (via his influence on global revolutionary movements), from his work.


== Governance ==
Economic growth has also increased dramatically. According to a study from the National Bureau of Economic Research, "reforms yielded a significant growth and structural transformation differential. GDP growth is 4.2 percentage points higher and the share of the labor force in agriculture is 23.9 percentage points lower compared with the continuation of the pre-1978 policies."<ref>Anton Cheremukhin, Mikhail Golosov, Sergei Guriev, Aleh Tsyvinski (2015). ''The economy of People’s Republic of China from 1953'' {{Doi|10.3386/w21397}}</ref>


=== Healthcare in Modern China ===
==Common issues==
In the Maoist period, China built one of the developing world's most robust public healthcare systems, based on rural primary care, barefoot doctors, and regular mass campaigns, known as "patriotic health campaigns." Since the beginning of the reform period, China's healthcare system has gone through a number of phases. After an unfortunate period of regression and privatization, China has spent the last decade making rapid progress towards a new universal healthcare system. A 2020 study in the ''British Medical Journal (BMJ)'' summarizes many of the goals and programs of China's recent health reforms:<blockquote>Priority was given to expanding the scope and health service package of the basic insurance coverage, improving provider payment mechanisms, as well as increasing the financing level, fiscal subsidies and reimbursement rates. [...] The government has increased investment in primary care, with initiatives that include strengthening the infrastructure of primary healthcare (PHC) facilities, expanding human resources for primary care through incentives and supporting projects, establishing a general practitioner system and improving the capacity of PHC personnel through training and education, such as general practice training and continuous medical education programmes. [...] The ‘equalization of basic public health services’ policy implemented the national BPHS programme and the crucial public health service (CPHS) programme. [...] This policy seeks to achieve universal availability and promote a more equitable provision of basic health services to all urban and rural citizens.<ref>https://gh.bmj.com/content/5/3/e002086.abstract</ref></blockquote>The study goes on to note that China has made significant progress towards meeting its reform goals, and building a developed and equitable universal healthcare system:<blockquote>During the past 10 years since the latest round of healthcare reform, China made steady progress in achieving the reform goals and UHC [i.e. universal health coverage].</blockquote>Another paper, also from the ''BMJ,'' summarizes the recent improvements in China's health outcomes, as well as access to, and cost of, healthcare:<blockquote>The results include the following: out-of-pocket expenditures as a percentage of current health expenditures in China have dropped dramatically from 60.13% in 2000 to 35.91% in 2016; the health insurance coverage of the total population jumped from 22.1% in 2003 to 95.1% in 2013; the average life expectancy increased from 72.0 to 76.4, maternal mortality dropped from 59 to 29 per 100 000 live births, the under-5 mortality rate dropped from 36.8 to 9.3 per 1000 live births, and neonatal mortality dropped from 21.4 to 4.7 per 1000 live births between 2000 and 2017; and so on.<ref>https://gh.bmj.com/content/5/3/e002087?int_source=trendmd&int_medium=cpc&int_campaign=usage-042019</ref></blockquote>In short, while China's healthcare system is not perfect, it is certainly moving in the right direction. As with many other aspects of China's socialist construction, this provides a model for other developing nations; according to the aforementioned ''BMJ'' study:<blockquote>The lessons learnt from China could help other nations improve UHC in sustainable and adaptive ways, including continued political support, increased health financing and a strong PHC system as basis. The experience of the rapid development of UHC in China can provide a valuable mode for countries (mainly LMICs) planning their own path further on in the UHC journey.</blockquote>This is another benefit of China's rise to prominence on the world stage. China demonstrates to the world that it is possible for a desperately poor country to rise from poverty, develop its economy, and meet the needs of its people.


=== Democracy and Popular Opinion in China ===
==="Imperialism" and the Belt and Road Initiative===
Polls conducted by Western researchers have consistently found that the Chinese people have a high level of support for their government, and for the Communist Party. A 2020 analysis by the China Data Lab (based at UC San Diego) found that support for the government has been increasing as of late.<ref>http://chinadatalab.ucsd.edu/viz-blog/pandemic-sees-increase-in-chinese-support-for-regime-decrease-in-views-towards-us/</ref> Similar results were found in a 2016 survey done by Harvard University's Ash Center:<blockquote>The survey team found that compared to public opinion patterns in the U.S., in China there was very high satisfaction with the central government. In 2016, the last year the survey was conducted, 95.5 percent of respondents were either “relatively satisfied” or “highly satisfied” with Beijing. In contrast to these findings, Gallup reported in January of this year that their latest polling on U.S. citizen satisfaction with the American federal government revealed only 38 percent of respondents were satisfied with the federal government.<ref>https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2020/07/long-term-survey-reveals-chinese-government-satisfaction/</ref></blockquote>It is worth noting that the Chinese people are significantly less satisfied with local government than they are with the central government. Still, these results disprove the common notion that the Chinese people are ruled by an iron fisted regime that they do not want. Indeed, one official from the Ash Center noted that their findings "run counter to the general idea that these people are marginalized and disfavored by policies." As he states:<blockquote>We tend to forget that for many in China, and in their lived experience of the past four decades, each day was better than the next.</blockquote>In addition, most Chinese people are satisfied with the level of democracy in the PRC. A 2018 study in the ''International Political Science Review'' notes that "surveys suggest that the majority of Chinese people feel satisfied with the level of democracy in China." However, the study notes that "people who hold liberal democratic values" are more likely to be dissatisfied with the state of democracy in China. By contrast, those who hold a "substantive" view of democracy (i.e. one based on the idea that the state should focus on providing for the material needs of the people) are more satisfied.<ref>https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0192512118757128</ref>
China is often accused (typically by Western [[Non-Communist Left|pseudo-leftists]]) of being an "imperialist" state, due primarily to its investments in Africa, as part of the Belt and Road Initiative. These critics ignore the actual views of the African people themselves, who overwhelmingly approve of China's role in their economic development.<ref>Deutsche Welle (2016). ''[https://www.dw.com/en/africans-approve-of-china-says-afrobarometer/a-36214106 Africans approve of China, says Afrobarometer]''</ref> In addition, the extent of Chinese involvement in Africa is smaller than often believed; according to a 2019 paper from the Center for Economic Policy Research, "China’s influence in Africa is much smaller than is generally believed, though its engagement on the continent is increasing. Chinese investment in Africa, while less extensive than often assumed, has the potential to generate jobs and development on the continent."<ref>Deborah Brautigam, Xinshen Diao, Margaret McMillan, Jed Silver (2017). ''Chinese investment in Africa: How much do we know?'' Private Enterprise Development in Low Income Countries. ([https://pedl.cepr.org/sites/default/files/PEDL_Synthesis_Papers_Piece_No._2_0.pdf PDF link])</ref>


While the Chinese government contains authoritarian elements, it also has elements of genuine democracy. An example of this may be found in the National People's Congress, China's primary legislative body. While Western media has typically labeled the NPC as a simple rubberstamping body for the Central Committee, the facts indicate that this is not entirely true. A 2016 study in the ''Journal of Legislative Studies'' found that the NPC "is no longer a minimal or ‘rubber-stamp’ legislature," noting that "the NPC does play an important role in the whole political system, especially in legislation, though the NPC has typically been under the control of China's Communist Party."<ref>https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13572334.2015.1134909</ref>
A 2018 study in the ''Review of Development Finance'' also found that Chinese investment in Africa raises incomes in the African nations that receive the investment, in a similar way to foreign investments by other nations. The author state that these results "suggest that the win-win deal China claims when investing in Africa may hold, and Chinese investment contributes to growth in Africa. Put differently, Chinese investment is mutually beneficial for both China and Africa."<ref>Ficawoyi Donou-Adonsou, Sokchea Lim (2018). ''On the importance of Chinese investment in Africa.'' Review of Development Finance. {{Doi|10.1016/j.rdf.2018.05.003}}</ref>


Many of the other claims surrounding authoritarianism in China are highly overblown, to say the least. For instance, an [https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/11/16/chinas-orwellian-social-credit-score-isnt-real/ article] in ''Foreign Policy'' (the most orthodox of liberal policy journals) notes that the Chinese social credit system was massively exaggerated and distorted in Western media. An [https://www.wired.com/story/china-social-credit-score-system/ article] in the publication ''Wired'' discusses how many of these overblown perceptions came to be. None of this is to suggest that China is a perfect democracy, with zero flaws; it certainly has issues relating to transparency, treatment of prisoners, etc. That being said, it is far from the totalitarian nightmare that imperialist media generally depicts it as being.
The economist Yanis Varoufakis discussed the topic in a recent lecture given at the Cambridge forum. He helpfully debunks a number of myths on the matter.
 
===Abandoning of Marxism===
=== The Continued Role of Public Ownership ===
[[File:Marx_poster_in_Beijing.jpg|thumb|A poster in Beijing that reads "Never forget our roots. Marxism was here in China's early days"|alt=]]
Contrary to the popular perception that China's growth has been the result of a transition to capitalism, the evidence shows that public ownership continues to play a key growth-driving role in the PRC's economy. According to the aforementioned 2020 study in the ''Review of Radical Political Economics'', "strategic industries, which Lenin called 'the commanding heights of economy,' are still state-owned and have played a very important role in China’s economic development."<ref>https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0486613419888298?icid=int.sj-abstract.similar-articles.3</ref> The author notes that "after decades of market reform, China’s state sector, rather than disappearing or being marginalized, has become a leader in strategic sectors and the driver of its investment-led growth." To learn more, we would recommend the book ''The Basic Economic System of China'', which goes into this issue in much more depth.<ref>https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-981-13-6895-0#about</ref>
In 2020, Xi Jinping gave a speech to the Politburo of the Communist Party of China, in which he made clear the continued importance that the CPC places on Marxist political economy. To quote:<blockquote>Marxist political economy is an important component of Marxism, and required learning for our efforts to uphold and develop Marxism. [...] There are people who believe Marxist political economy and ''Das Kapital'' are obsolete, but this is an arbitrary and erroneous judgment. Setting aside more distant events and looking at just the period since the global financial crisis, we can see that many capitalist countries have remained in an economic slump, with serious unemployment problems, intensifying polarization, and deepening social divides. The facts tell us that the contradictions between the socialization of production and the private possession of the means of production still exist, but they are manifested in ways and show characteristics that are somewhat different.<ref>Xi Jinping (2015). ''[http://en.qstheory.cn/2020-11/08/c_560906.htm Opening up new frontiers for Marxist political economy in contemporary China].'' Qiushi Journal.</ref></blockquote>He goes on to list a number of principles guiding the implementation of Marxist political economy in the PRC:<blockquote>First, we must uphold a people-centered approach to development. Development is for the people; this is the fundamental position of Marxist political economy. [...] Second, we must uphold the new development philosophy. Third, we must uphold and improve our basic socialist economic system. According to Marxist political economy, ownership of the means of production is the core of the relations of production, and this determines a society's fundamental nature and the orientation of its development. Since reform and opening up... we have stressed the importance of continuing to make public ownership the mainstay while allowing ownership of other forms to develop side by side, and made it clear that both the public and non-public sectors are important components of the socialist market economy as well as crucial foundations for our nation's economic and social development. [...] Fourth, we must uphold and improve our basic socialist distribution system. [...] Fifth, we must uphold reforms to develop the socialist market economy. [...] Sixth, we must uphold the fundamental national policy of opening up.</blockquote>From this, it should be quite clear that Marxism (specifically Marxism-Leninism and Mao Zedong Thought) retains a dominant role in the People's Republic of China, serving as the guiding ideology of the Communist Party.
==References==


== References ==
<references />
[[Category:Countries]]

Revision as of 19:40, 27 October 2021

中华人民共和国
Flag of People's Republic of China
Flag
National Emblem of People's Republic of China
National Emblem
Location of People's Republic of China
CapitalBeijing
Largest cityChongqing
Dominant mode of productionPrimary stage of socialism
GovernmentUnitary Marxist-Leninist people's republic
• President and General Secretary
Xi Jinping
• Vice President
Wang Qishan
• Premier
Li Keqiang
History
• Unification of China by Qin Shi Huang
221 BC
• Founding of the Yuan Dynasty
1271 November 5
• Establishment of the People's Republic of China
1949 October 1
Population
• 2020 estimate
1,463,140,000

China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population of around 1.4 billion in 2019. It is led by the Communist Party of China (CPC). The Chinese constitution states that the PRC "is a socialist state under the people's democratic dictatorship led by the working class and based on the alliance of workers and peasants." and that the state organs "apply the principle of democratic centralism."[1]

The People's Republic of China is one of only five Marxist-Leninist states in the world today (alongside Cuba, Laos, People's Korea and Vietnam). Over the last few years it has emerged as the world's leading economic power, and as a result has been subjected to near-constant demonization from Western media and propaganda outlets.[2][3]

History

In accordance with historical materialism, Chinese history can be divided into primitive, slave, and feudal eras. Modern Chinese historians do not, however, use the terms "capitalist era" or "socialist era". This is because the capitalist period of Chinese history fits into the broader New-Democratic Revolution period (1919–1949). The socialist era, which began in 1956, is likewise not considered an era of Chinese history but instead is considered part of the People's Republic period (1949–).[4]

Semi-colonial and semi-feudal society (1840–1949)

The era of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society was divided into two parts: The Old Democratic Revolution, which began with the Opium War in 1840 and ended with the May 4th Movement in 1919, and the New Democratic Revolution, which lasted until the founding of the People's Republic in 1949. This 109-year period is also know by some as the "century of humiliation".[4]

The Old Democratic Revolution period (1840–1919)

The Old Democratic Revolution was a period of establishing western "democracy" and dismantling feudalism, which is where it gets its name from. Rather than being a revolutionary movement by the people of China, it was a revolutionary change caused by the invasion and occupation of China by western powers. It began with the First Opium War when the feudal Qing dynasty tried to restrict the drug trade of opium in China. The United Kingdom, and later the United States of America, responded by declaring war on China.[4]

The conditions during this occupation were terrible. Notably in the British settlement of Shanghai, signboards were hung up outside parks prohibiting Chinese and dogs inside. The occupying powers forced local Chinese to carry them from place to place, and they also engaged in foot-binding.[4]

The New Democratic Revolution period (1919–1949)

The New Democratic Revolution was a revolution by the people of China against the weak Qing dynasty and the occupying Western powers. It is known as a democratic revolution because it still accepted the basic ideology of Western capitalism, but it was different in that it rejected colonialism and was fought by the people themselves. This revolution successfully brought down the Qing dynasty and established the Republic of China, but this state was even weaker than the Qing dynasty and most of the country was now ruled by warlords.[4]

At that time, China was one of the poorest societies in the world, plagued by starvation and feudal oppression. The vast majority of the population was engaged in subsistence agriculture, and a survey on the causes of death conducted in 1929-31 revealed that more than half of all deaths were caused by infectious diseases.[5] Famines were widespread and severe periods of hunger were lived by many Chinese peasants. During this period, China also suffered from illiteracy and high inequality. Estimates from this period suggest that, landlords and rich peasants taken together typically owned upward of half the land even though their share in the population typically did not exceed 10 percent. Poor peasants and agricultural labourers who owned little to no land formed the majority of the population.[6]

Educational standards during this period were terrible, if not inexistent. In 1949, more than 80 per cent of China's population was illiterate. Enrolment rates in primary and middle schools were abysmal: 20 and 6 per cent, respectively.[7] In addition, women's rights were highly curtailed and patriarchal norms were widespread, and this culture kept growing as Kuomintang rule took root in the Taiwan province.[8]

The First Generation (1949–1976)

The first generation of leadership covers the extent of time that Zhou Enlai was the premier of the PRC. Mao Zedong was extremely influential in Chinese politics at this time, but he held the office Chairman of the PRC for only 9 years. For the rest of this 27 year long period, Mao Zedong was the General Secretary of the CPC. This generation was mainly characterized by Mao Zedong's political theory now known as Mao Zedong Thought.[9]

The first generation marks the founding of the People's Republic of China, an event captured on film.[10] The newly victorious socialist government promoted remarkable changes in Chinese society: establishing land reform, providing equal rights for women, seeing through campaigns for disease prevention and decreasing infant mortality.[5] During this period, China's growth in life expectancy ranks as among the most rapid sustained increases in documented global history,[7][11] mainly because of the socialist government's radical commitment to the elimination of poverty and to improving living conditions of the people; an effort which has brought the elimination of widespread hunger, illiteracy, and ill health, remarkable reduction in chronic undernourishment and child mortality, and a dramatic expansion of longevity.[12] Systematic efforts to vaccinate the population against polio, measles, diphtheria, whooping cough, scarlet fever, cholera and other diseases were rapid and reputedly successful, virtually eradicating smallpox within the span of only three years.[7]

The land reforms led to the destruction of feudal relations of production in agriculture, leading to virtually universal access to land and a dramatic reduction in poverty and hunger.[6] Education also improved dramatically in this period. During the 1950s, investments in primary and secondary school infrastructure increased considerably, and dramatic increases in attendance followed. Primary school enrollment rates rose to 80% by 1958 and to 97% by 1975, and secondary school rates increased to 46% by 1977.[7]

Even though China achieved many positive changes in society, the first generation has experienced problems in their governance, most notably during the Great Leap Forward, which was a colossal failure, contributing to the Great Chinese Famine, which had major long-term effects on health and economic development in China, leading to reduced population height, and having a negative impact on labor supply and earnings of famine survivors.[13] Another campaign, the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution resulted in overzealous local cadres taking the situation out of control, destroying sites of heritage and recklessly denouncing people in their community.[citation needed]

The Second Generation (1976–1992)

The second generation of leadership covers the extent of time that Deng Xiaoping was influential in Chinese politics. Deng Xiaoping only held two positions of power during this time: Chair of the Central Military Commission of the PRC for 4 years, and Chair of the Central Military Commission of the CPC for 8 years. For the rest of this 16 year long period, Deng Xiaoping held no positions of power but was still considered the most influential figure in Chinese politics. This generation was mainly characterized by the development of Socialism with Chinese characteristics.[14]

The reform programs introduced in this period produced impressive results. The Chinese economy saw a rapid expansion in both investment and consumption, rapid rises in both productivity and the wage rate, and rapid increases in job creation, which provided the necessary material conditions for broader social development, including the reconstruction of a publicly-funded healthcare system and acceleration of the process of urbanization.[15]

The Third Generation (1992–2002)

The third generation of leadership covers the extent of time that Jiang Zemin was president of the PRC.[16] It was mainly characterized by Jiang Zemin's political theory known as the "Three Represents".[17]

The Three Represents theory refers to the following:

  1. Representing the development trend of China’s advanced productive forces.
  2. Representing the orientation of China's advanced culture.
  3. Representing the fundamental interests of the overwhelming majority of the Chinese people.

The Fourth Generation (2002–2012)

The fourth generation of leadership covers the extent of time that Hu Jintao was the president of the PRC, and that Wen Jiabo was premier. It was mainly characterized by Hu Jintao's political theory known as the scientific outlook on development.

The Fifth Generation (2012–present)

The fifth generation of leadership covers the extent of time that Xi Jinping has been the president of the PRC, and that Li Keqiang has been the premier.[18]

The biggest project of the fifth generation of leadership has been the Belt and Road Initiative. Other endeavors made during this generation include the Chinese Space Station, the Two Centennial Goals, and Green Development.

The main political contribution made during the fifth generation has been Xi Jinping Thought but other contributions have been made such as the Core Socialist Values, and the Chinese Dream.

Administrative Divisions

A map of China

China has 34 province-level divisions: 23 provinces, 5 autonomous regions, 4 municipalities directly under the Central Government, and 2 special administrative region.[19]

Name Seat of Government Area (100,000 km2) Population (100,000)
Beijing Municipality Beijing 0.168 125.7
Tianjin Municipality Tianjin 0.113 95.9
Hebei Province Shijiazhuang 1.900 661.4
Shanxi Province Taiyuan 1.560 320.4
Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region Hohhot 11.830 236.2
Liaoning Province Shenyang 1.457 417.1
Jilin Province Changchun 1.870 265.8
Heilongjiang Province Harbin 4.690 379.2
Shanghai Municipality Shanghai 0.062 147.4
Jiangsu Province Nanjing 1.026 721.3
Zhejiang Province Hangzhou 1.018 447.5
Anhui Province Hefei 1.390 623.7
Fujian Province Fuzhou 1.200 331.6
Jiangxi Province Nanchang 1.666 423.1
Shandong Province Jinan 1.530 888.3
Henan Province Zhengzhou 1.670 938.7
Hubei Province Wuhan 1.874 593.8
Hunan Province Changsha 2.100 653.2
Guangdong Province Guangzhou 1.860 727.0
Guangxi Autonomous Region Nanning 2.363 471.3
Hainan Province Haikou 0.340 76.2
Chongqing Municipality Chongqing 0.820 307.5
Sichuan Province Chengdu 4.880 855.0
Guizhou Province Guiyang 1.700 371.0
Yunnan Province Kunming 3.940 419.2
Tibet Autonomous Region Lhasa 12.200 25.6
Shaanxi Province Xi'an 2.050 361.8
Gansu Province Lanzhou 4.500 254.3
Qinghai Province Xining 7.200 51.0
Ningxia Autonomous Region Yinchuan 0.664 54.3
Xinjiang Autonomous Region Urumqi 16.000 177.4
Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Hong Kong 0.01092 68.4
Macao Special Administrative Region Macao 0.00024 4.3
Taiwan Province 0.360 217.4

Economy

While this section is under development, here are a few sources for us to take a look: [20] China controls strategic resources such as rare earth minerals as well as silicon chips, which are both valuable to high-technology industries.[21]

Governance

Healthcare

In the Maoist period, China built one of the developing world's most robust public healthcare systems, based on rural primary care, barefoot doctors, and regular mass campaigns, known as "patriotic health campaigns." Since the beginning of the reform period, China's healthcare system has gone through a number of phases. After an unfortunate period of regression and privatization, China has spent the last decade making rapid progress towards a new universal healthcare system. A 2020 study in the British Medical Journal (BMJ) summarizes many of the goals and programs of China's recent health reforms:

Priority was given to expanding the scope and health service package of the basic insurance coverage, improving provider payment mechanisms, as well as increasing the financing level, fiscal subsidies and reimbursement rates. [...] The government has increased investment in primary care, with initiatives that include strengthening the infrastructure of primary healthcare (PHC) facilities, expanding human resources for primary care through incentives and supporting projects, establishing a general practitioner system and improving the capacity of PHC personnel through training and education, such as general practice training and continuous medical education programmes. [...] The ‘equalization of basic public health services’ policy implemented the national BPHS programme and the crucial public health service (CPHS) programme. [...] This policy seeks to achieve universal availability and promote a more equitable provision of basic health services to all urban and rural citizens.[22]

The study goes on to note that China has made significant progress towards meeting its reform goals, and building a developed and equitable universal healthcare system:

During the past 10 years since the latest round of healthcare reform, China made steady progress in achieving the reform goals and UHC [i.e. universal health coverage].

Another paper, also from the BMJ, summarizes the recent improvements in China's health outcomes, as well as access to, and cost of, healthcare:

The results include the following: out-of-pocket expenditures as a percentage of current health expenditures in China have dropped dramatically from 60.13% in 2000 to 35.91% in 2016; the health insurance coverage of the total population jumped from 22.1% in 2003 to 95.1% in 2013; the average life expectancy increased from 72.0 to 76.4, maternal mortality dropped from 59 to 29 per 100 000 live births, the under-5 mortality rate dropped from 36.8 to 9.3 per 1000 live births, and neonatal mortality dropped from 21.4 to 4.7 per 1000 live births between 2000 and 2017; and so on.[23]

In short, while China's healthcare system is not perfect, it is certainly moving in the right direction. As with many other aspects of China's socialist construction, this provides a model for other developing nations; according to the aforementioned BMJ study:

The lessons learnt from China could help other nations improve UHC in sustainable and adaptive ways, including continued political support, increased health financing and a strong PHC system as basis. The experience of the rapid development of UHC in China can provide a valuable mode for countries (mainly LMICs) planning their own path further on in the UHC journey.

This is another benefit of China's rise to prominence on the world stage. China demonstrates to the world that it is possible for a desperately poor country to rise from poverty, develop its economy, and meet the needs of its people.

Democracy and Popular Opinion

Polls conducted by Western researchers have consistently found that the Chinese people have a high level of support for their government, and for the Communist Party. A 2020 analysis by the China Data Lab (based at UC San Diego) found that support for the government has been increasing as of late.[24] Similar results were found in a 2016 survey done by Harvard University's Ash Center:

The survey team found that compared to public opinion patterns in the U.S., in China there was very high satisfaction with the central government. In 2016, the last year the survey was conducted, 95.5 percent of respondents were either “relatively satisfied” or “highly satisfied” with Beijing. In contrast to these findings, Gallup reported in January of this year that their latest polling on U.S. citizen satisfaction with the American federal government revealed only 38 percent of respondents were satisfied with the federal government.[25]

It is worth noting that the Chinese people are significantly less satisfied with local government than they are with the central government. Still, these results disprove the common notion that the Chinese people are ruled by an iron fisted regime that they do not want. Indeed, one official from the Ash Center noted that their findings "run counter to the general idea that these people are marginalized and disfavored by policies." As he states:

We tend to forget that for many in China, and in their lived experience of the past four decades, each day was better than the next.

In addition, most Chinese people are satisfied with the level of democracy in the PRC. A 2018 study in the International Political Science Review notes that "surveys suggest that the majority of Chinese people feel satisfied with the level of democracy in China." However, the study notes that "people who hold liberal democratic values" are more likely to be dissatisfied with the state of democracy in China. By contrast, those who hold a "substantive" view of democracy (i.e. one based on the idea that the state should focus on providing for the material needs of the people) are more satisfied.[26]

While the Chinese government contains authoritarian elements, it also has elements of genuine democracy. An example of this may be found in the National People's Congress, China's primary legislative body. While Western media has typically labeled the NPC as a simple rubberstamping body for the Central Committee, the facts indicate that this is not entirely true. A 2016 study in the Journal of Legislative Studies found that the NPC "is no longer a minimal or ‘rubber-stamp’ legislature," noting that "the NPC does play an important role in the whole political system, especially in legislation, though the NPC has typically been under the control of China's Communist Party."[27]

Many of the other claims surrounding authoritarianism in China are highly overblown, to say the least. For instance, an article in Foreign Policy (the most orthodox of liberal policy journals) notes that the Chinese social credit system was massively exaggerated and distorted in Western media. An article in the publication Wired discusses how many of these overblown perceptions came to be. None of this is to suggest that China is a perfect democracy, with zero flaws; it certainly has issues relating to transparency, treatment of prisoners, etc. That being said, it is far from the totalitarian nightmare that imperialist media generally depicts it as being.

Public Ownership

Contrary to the popular perception that China's growth has been the result of a transition to capitalism, the evidence shows that public ownership continues to play a key growth-driving role in the PRC's economy. According to the aforementioned 2020 study in the Review of Radical Political Economics, "strategic industries, which Lenin called 'the commanding heights of economy,' are still state-owned and have played a very important role in China’s economic development."[28] The author notes that "after decades of market reform, China’s state sector, rather than disappearing or being marginalized, has become a leader in strategic sectors and the driver of its investment-led growth." To learn more, we would recommend the book The Basic Economic System of China, which goes into this issue in much more depth.[29]

Growth and Poverty Reduction

According to a 2019 report from Philip Alston (UN Special Rapporteur on Extreme Poverty and Human Rights):

China’s achievements in alleviating extreme poverty in recent years, and in meeting highly ambitious targets for improving social well-being, have been extraordinary. [...] Over the past three decades, and with particular speed in recent years, China has lifted hundreds of millions of people out of poverty. This is a staggering achievement and is a credit to those responsible.[30]

Similarly, a 2020 study in the China Economic Review notes that income growth has been "widely shared nationwide," resulting in "substantial, ongoing rural poverty reduction" throughout the country. A major milestone was reached with the recent announcement (acknowledged in Western media outlets, such as CNN) that the last poverty-stricken counties in China have been delisted, "leaving no county in a state of absolute poverty countrywide."[31]

Malnutrition has continued to decline massively in China over the last several decades. According to the University of Oxford's Our World in Data project, China now has a lower rate of death from malnutrition than the United States,[32] as well as a lower rate of extreme poverty, despite having a significantly lower GDP-per-capita.[33]

Economic growth has also increased dramatically. According to a study from the National Bureau of Economic Research, "reforms yielded a significant growth and structural transformation differential. GDP growth is 4.2 percentage points higher and the share of the labor force in agriculture is 23.9 percentage points lower compared with the continuation of the pre-1978 policies."[34]

Common issues

"Imperialism" and the Belt and Road Initiative

China is often accused (typically by Western pseudo-leftists) of being an "imperialist" state, due primarily to its investments in Africa, as part of the Belt and Road Initiative. These critics ignore the actual views of the African people themselves, who overwhelmingly approve of China's role in their economic development.[35] In addition, the extent of Chinese involvement in Africa is smaller than often believed; according to a 2019 paper from the Center for Economic Policy Research, "China’s influence in Africa is much smaller than is generally believed, though its engagement on the continent is increasing. Chinese investment in Africa, while less extensive than often assumed, has the potential to generate jobs and development on the continent."[36]

A 2018 study in the Review of Development Finance also found that Chinese investment in Africa raises incomes in the African nations that receive the investment, in a similar way to foreign investments by other nations. The author state that these results "suggest that the win-win deal China claims when investing in Africa may hold, and Chinese investment contributes to growth in Africa. Put differently, Chinese investment is mutually beneficial for both China and Africa."[37]

The economist Yanis Varoufakis discussed the topic in a recent lecture given at the Cambridge forum. He helpfully debunks a number of myths on the matter.

Abandoning of Marxism

A poster in Beijing that reads "Never forget our roots. Marxism was here in China's early days"

In 2020, Xi Jinping gave a speech to the Politburo of the Communist Party of China, in which he made clear the continued importance that the CPC places on Marxist political economy. To quote:

Marxist political economy is an important component of Marxism, and required learning for our efforts to uphold and develop Marxism. [...] There are people who believe Marxist political economy and Das Kapital are obsolete, but this is an arbitrary and erroneous judgment. Setting aside more distant events and looking at just the period since the global financial crisis, we can see that many capitalist countries have remained in an economic slump, with serious unemployment problems, intensifying polarization, and deepening social divides. The facts tell us that the contradictions between the socialization of production and the private possession of the means of production still exist, but they are manifested in ways and show characteristics that are somewhat different.[38]

He goes on to list a number of principles guiding the implementation of Marxist political economy in the PRC:

First, we must uphold a people-centered approach to development. Development is for the people; this is the fundamental position of Marxist political economy. [...] Second, we must uphold the new development philosophy. Third, we must uphold and improve our basic socialist economic system. According to Marxist political economy, ownership of the means of production is the core of the relations of production, and this determines a society's fundamental nature and the orientation of its development. Since reform and opening up... we have stressed the importance of continuing to make public ownership the mainstay while allowing ownership of other forms to develop side by side, and made it clear that both the public and non-public sectors are important components of the socialist market economy as well as crucial foundations for our nation's economic and social development. [...] Fourth, we must uphold and improve our basic socialist distribution system. [...] Fifth, we must uphold reforms to develop the socialist market economy. [...] Sixth, we must uphold the fundamental national policy of opening up.

From this, it should be quite clear that Marxism (specifically Marxism-Leninism and Mao Zedong Thought) retains a dominant role in the People's Republic of China, serving as the guiding ideology of the Communist Party.

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