View source for Library:A History of the U.S.S.R./Part 1

== Early Times ==

=== The Primitive Community System in Our Country ===

==== Primeval Human Society ====

===== The Birth of Human Society =====
The first traces of human life in 
Europe date back to that distant period when the climate was warm 
and humid. The luxuriant, evergreen forests consisted of laurel, box, 
yew and other species of trees. The woods and riverbanks abounded 
in animals which today are either extinct (as the pre-historic elephant, 
and a peculiar genus of rhinoceros) or which now occur in southern 
lands (as the hippopotamus and leopard). 

Human beings lived in small groups ("primitive hordes"). The 
first implements used by man were rough-chipped stones. People 
obtained their food in common by gathering snails, insects, fruit and 
edible roots. The hunting of small animals was still a casual pursuit. 
Because of the warm climate man had no need for the protection of 
special shelters or clothing. 

Gradually the climate hardened and grew still more humid. Large 
glaciers formed in the north, and moved down the mountains. The 
luxuriant forests receded farther south, and the warm-climate animals 
either went south with them, or vanished completely. Vast areas 
were under ice. 

Man however remained and adapted himself to the harsher climatic 
conditions inasmuch as he had learned the use of fire. At first he learned 
how to keep up a fire, and then how to obtain it by rubbing dry sticks 
together and by striking sparks out of stone. Fire kept man warm, 
protected him against wild beasts, and allowed him to eat his meat 
and fish cooked. 

The earliest squatting places of man in our country are those discovered in the Caucasus (near Sukhumi) and in the Crimea. A large 
number of split animal bones and rude stone implements have been 
found in caves not far from Simferopol. These were the dwellings of 
primitive hunters who used natural caves as protection against beasts 
and as shelter in time of bad weather. 

When the Glacial Age was at its height, a large cap of ice covered 
the European territory of our country, extending to the Middle Don 
and the Southern Dnieper (almost to Dniepropetrovsk). The ice cap 
over Siberia was less considerable.  

This blanket of ice covered our land for many tens of thousands 
of years. The glaciers melted slowly and the ice gradually receded to 
the north, leaving behind it ridges of boulders. 

At first the land freed from the glaciers was covered with tundra. 
Torrents of thawing ice cut channels into the soil and formed the 
river systems. The abundance of moisture stimulated the rapid growth of grass and forests. The plains, woods, riverbanks, lake shores, etc., became the abode of large animals — the mammoth and rhinoceros, as well as the reindeer and other specimens of the northern and Arctic animal world, Man’s most dangerous enemies — the cave lion, cave bear and cave hyena— inhabited the hills and caves. Man followed the retreating glaciers to the north.

===== The Primitive Community =====
Equipped only with the wooden 
club, the wooden spear and the 
crudest stone implements man 
was unable to combat the rigorous conditions of nature and 
the wild beasts singlehanded. 

Danger dogged him at every step. Only by helping each other 
could men protect themselves against the attacks of beasts and obtain 
the food they needed. This co-operation was especially necessary 
when hunting big game like the mammoth, rhinoceros, the wild bull 
and other beasts. In appearance the mammoth resembled the elephant, 
but was much larger and stronger. The mammoth chief means of 
defence were his enormous upcurving tusks.

The mammoth was a herbivorous animal and dangerous only when 
being pursued. To capture such a strong beast people had to set 
traps or to lie in wait for their quarry near watering places or steep 
cliffs. 

Collective life led to the formation of the primitive community. 
Everything, with the exception of some insignificant articles, belonged to the community; private property did not yet exist. In the 
primitive community there were no rich and poor, no exploitation 
of man by man. Productive forces were very poorly developed. 

People learned to make mud-huts and hovels as a shelter from 
the cold. Not long ago the remains of such a dwelling place were discovered on the Don, near the village of Gagarino. The bottom of the 
hut was a shallow, oval pit the sides of which were lined with boulders 
and large bones, to which poles were affixed, joined together at the 
top and forming a roof covered with twigs and hides. The bones of the 
mammoth, rhinoceros, bull and various small animals were found scattered inside the hut. Ornaments were also discovered there — the teeth of small beasts of prey, shells, and several carved bone figures of women. With the development of Soviet archeology as many as 200 habitats of ancient human society have been discovered on Soviet land. They are scattered in various places in the southern half of the European territory, in the Altai Mountains and in Western and Eastern Siberia, and are evidence of the profound antiquity of human society in our country. 

==== The Matriarchal Clan ====

===== Origin of the Matriarchal Clan =====
As the climate changed, the vast 
glaciers vanished. They remained only in the extreme north and on 
mountain peaks. Gradually the conditions of nature became more 
like what they are today. The animal world changed; many large 
beasts, such as the mammoth and the cave lion, became extinct. 
Man's struggle for existence was considerably mitigated. 

The primitive community had had no definite social organization 
and readily disintegrated. On the other hand, the existence of a common 
economy called for a more stable and permanent social organization. 

In the course of many thousands of years people handed down 
from generation to generation acquired labour habits. They learned 
to make implements of various sizes and shape from flint and bone, 
such as axes, hammers, knives, celts, picks, spear points, etc. They 
started polishing the surfaces of the stone implements, making them 
easier to handle. People learned to sharpen and pierce stones and fix 
them onto handles. Of great importance was the appearance of the 
bow and arrow which enabled the hunter to kill his quarry from afar. 

His new production technique enabled man to rise to a higher 
stage of human civilization, that of barbarism. Man began to make 
earthenware, which was necessary for storing water, especially in dry 
regions. At first, the utensils were made of wood, twigs and skins. 
Then, to make them more durable, the walls of the wooden vessels 
were lined with clay. Still later the entire vessel was made of clay 
alone. Finally, the potter's wheel appeared, and with it pottery production. The plaiting of baskets from twigs and rushes anticipated 
the weaving of the fibre of wild plants. This was the beginning of 
textile production. Coarse, handwoven fabric was used for clothing, 
bags, and the like, Man’s vocations became more intricate and diverse. 
He began to use nets woven of fibre for fishing. His chief hunting 
weapons were the spear, the harpoon, and the bow and arrow. 
Dming their excavations archeologists sometimes find the bones 
of large beasts of prey with flint arrowheads deeply imbedded 
in them. At first women gathered fruit and berries; then they began planting grain, tubers and edible roots. For this purpose a plot of fertile 
land, usually in a river valley, was loosened by means of a pointed 
stick — the hoe. Barley, millet and wheat were sown. In this way 
arose the primitive form of hoe agriculture. 

Primitive agriculture, which was carried on chiefly by the women, 
provided mankind with a more stable economic basis. Gradually, in 
the course of centuries, primitive people began to revere woman as 
the symbol of fertility. Realizing the importance of maternity, they 
also honoured woman as the ancestral Mother. And woman, as the 
Mother, tiller of the soil, and guardian of the collective life of the 
group, became head of the primitive matriarchal clan. 

When a man took a wife, he went to live with her clan, where 
he was subordinate to his wife’s mother. At clan meetings, woman, 
the Mother, was in command, and members of the clan honoured only 
their female ancestors. For the murder of or insult to one of their kin, 
the entire clan sought revenge. Inter-clan blood feuds became endless 
wars. For purposes of war several clans joined to form tribes. Clans 
consisted of several hundred people, and were united chiefly for work. 
A tribe combined a number of clans comprising several thousand 
people, who primarily formed a military group. At tribal meetings 
the armed people — men and women — elected leaders and elders, and 
decided questions of war and peace. Women were also tribal chieftains. 

The men, who were hunters, tamed wild animals. This laid the 
foundation for animal herding. The first domestic animal was the dog. 
In northern regions man tamed the reindeer.

===== Habitations of Clan Communities =====
Many dwelling places of clan 
communities have been found all over our country, from the shores 
of the Black Sea and the valleys of the Transcaucasian Mountains to 
the Far North, and from Byelorussia to Eastern Siberia. This material 
has enabled scientists to determine how people lived in that remote 
epoch.

In the forest belt people lived along riverbanks and lake shores. 
Each settlement belonged to a single clan and consisted of a few hovels. 
The dwellers’ chief occupation was fishing, and to some extent hunting. 
In some places clan settlements were located in groups, a fact that 
points to the rise of a tribal union of clans. 

In the south, where the country consisted of mixed forest and 
steppeland, and especially in the fertile river valleys, the chief occupation of the population was tilling the ground with the hoe. As an 
example of a primitive agricultural society we have the Tripolye 
civilization, relics of which were first discovered near the village of 
Tripolye (not far from Kiev). Numerous settlements of the Tripolye 
civilization have been found on Ukrainian territory, west of the Dnieper; they are said to be about 6,000 years old. 
Settlements were located on high banks or on the slopes of ravines at the bottom of which streams flowed. The site selected for a dwelling 
was spread with clay which was baked hard with the help of bonfires. 
The walls were built of piles and sticks coated with clay. The result 
was a fairly spacious dwelling with several hearths inside. These 
crudely constructed houses accommodated up to a hundred and more 
people. The people planted wheat, barley and millet not far from 
their place of abode. Wooden flint-tipped hoes were used to turn up 
the soil. The grain was ground between large stone slabs. 

A large number of clay statuettes of animals have been 
found; a magical power was presumably ascribed to these statuettes 
which were supposed to protect the domestic herd and help it to 
multiply. Pictures of domestic animals are also to be found on 
vessels. 

Occasionally articles made of copper are found in the villages of 
the Tripolye civilization. Little casting moulds have been unearthed, 
pointing to the fact that some of these articles were made at the place 
where they were found. The frequent occurrence of metallic objects 
coincides with the period when the matriarchal clan system began 
to decline.

==== The Patriarchal Clan ====

===== The Development of Herding =====
The domestication of wild animals 
was of great importance in the life of the clan communities. Possessing 
domestic animals, people had a constant supply of food and were no 
longer dependent on the outcome of their hunt, which was not always 
a success. The taming of dogs and reindeer (in the north) was followed 
by the domestication of other animals such as cattle, goats, sheep, 
swine and horses. Gradually herding became the chief pursuit of the 
community. At first the cattle lived all year by grazing near the settlement. Later the people began to make hay as fodder for the winter; 
in the north thin leafy twigs were dried and shredded for this purpose. 
During the winter domestic animals lived in the same houses with the 
people. Later special sheds were put up for the animals. Large herds 
of cattle could not remain in one place for a great length of time. 
People therefore began to migrate with their cattle in search of fresh 
pasturage. Thus, nomad herding originated in the vast steppeland.
Dairy farming, and the making of cheese and butter appeared with 
the development of cattle raising. Man learned to treat the wool of 
animals and to spin thread from it; then he began to make warm 
fabrics which were a good protection against the cold. Later the weaving loom was invented. 

The breeding of domestic animals enabled man to use them in 
turning up the soil. This led to the appearance of the first tilling implement — the wooden plough. The first primitive plough was probably a tree limb with a bent, pointed bough or rhizome.

===== Origin of the Patriarchal Clan =====
Herding was the chief occupation 
of the man. It greatly enhanced his importance in the community. 
Man, the livestock breeder, replaced woman in agriculture: he tilled 
the land with the aid of animals (the bull, deer and horse) and freed 
woman from heavy physical labour with the hoe or plough. By using 
draft animals, man transformed hoe agriculture into plough farming. 
Kinship began to be traced from the male line, and no longer from the 
female. The matriarchal clan, which had existed heretofore, disappeared, 
and was replaced by the patriarchal clan, that is, a union of relatives 
who originated from a common male ancestor. 

It became the established custom for a man’s children to inherit 
their father’s property, and this led to the accumulation of wealth 
in the family. Rich families began to withdraw from the clan. 
This accelerated the disintegration of the primitive community 
system. 

===== Development of Copper and Bronze Age Culture =====
The development 
of the patriarchal clan was coeval with the period when stone implements began to give way to copper and bronze tools. Native copper 
was worked in the cold state. However, implements made of pure 
copper were too soft, they easily bent and soon got blunt. The discovery of bronze, a copper and tin alloy, was of great importance in 
improving the quality of metal implements. Bronze melts at a lower 
temperature than copper. This facilitated the smelting and manufacture of bronze implements. The use of bronze, which is much harder 
than copper, permitted of a considerable improvement in tools and 
weapons, with the result that man’s labour became more productive 
and his weapons stronger. 

The most ancient copper articles found on the territory of the 
U.S.S.R. date back to 3,000 B.C. They were originally introduced 
from southern and eastern lands. Local production came into being 
no later than 2,000 B.C. The mountains of the Caucasus, Central 
Asia, the Altai and the Urals became seats of the Bronze Age civilization. From here the use of bronze implements spread to the steppe 
and forest regions. 

In early times, when hunting was man’s chief occupation, life 
in the different primitive communities was practically unvaried. 
Later occupations became more diversified. In forest localities which 
abounded in wild animals, hunting was still an important pursuit. 
Near rivers and lakes people turned chiefly to fishing, while in fertile 
river valleys they tilled the soil. The grassy steppe served as pasturage 
for their herds. 

The inhabitants of the European forest belts and the vast wooded 
areas of Siberia remained preeminently hunters and fishermen. They lived in small villages far removed from each other. The primitive 
community system still prevailed 
there. 

In the grassy plains of Southern 
Siberia, Central Asia and the 
Black Sea region, herding became 
the basic occupation. Agriculture 
predominated in the fertile valleys. 
Here the disintegration of the 
primitive community proceeded 
more rapidly. Communities of husbandmen and herders developed 
more quickly than communities 
of hunters. Sea steppes, which, when excavated, 
revealed human skeletons dyed a 
red colour. During burial, the dead body was covered with ochre 
or minium (red lead), which later settled in the bones. The dead man’s 
weapons and various household chattels were placed beside him. 
Sometimes the skeletons of a man and a woman were found together 
in the same burial mound. It is to be presumed that when a man, 
the head of a family, died, his wife was killed and buried with him. 
The barrows reveal that there were rich and poor burials, and testify 
to the incidence of inequality in property status. An example of an 
especially lavish burial — that of a clan or a tribal chief — is the tumulus 
discovered near the city of Maikop. The mound was about 30 feet high. 
The main section of the sepulchre contained a skeleton which had 
been coloured a bright red with minium. The deceased was dressed 
in clothing ornamented with golden images of bulls, rings, rosettes, 
and also with gold, cornelian and turquoise beads, and other small 
objects. Gold and silver vessels lay beside him. A canopy had been 
erected above the body, and was supported on gold and silver tubular 
piles decorated with solid gold and silver figures of bulls. The grave 
contained two other skeletons in special sections; the chieftain’s 
nearest relatives had to die with him. The Bronze Age flourished during the second millennium and the beginning of the first millennium B.C. in the mountains of the Caucasus, Transcaucasia and the Altai. Ancient mines from which ore 
was obtained for the local production of bronze, have been discovered 
in many places.

===== Beginning of the Iron Age =====
Iron objects appeared on the territory 
of the U.S.S.R. at the end of the second millennium B.C. At first iron was used to ornament bronze articles. In the first half of the first millennium B.C. the production of iron implements had already 
originated in various places, and these articles began to replace bronze 
weapons and tools. By the middle of the first millennium B.C., iron 
had firmly established itself in the life of the population of our country. 
It increased the productivity of labour tremendously, especially in 
agriculture and the crafts. "Iron made possible agriculture on a larger 
scale and the clearing of extensive forest tracts for cultivation; it 
gave the craftsman a tool of such hardness and sharpness that 
no stone, no other known metal, could withstand it."<ref>Engels, ''The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State'', Eng. ed., Moscow, 1940, p. 134.</ref> 

The beginning of the first millennium B.C. witnessed the birth 
of a class society in the southern mountains of Transcaucasia and in 
Asia Minor. The iron ploughshare and the iron ax brought about 
the decline of the primitive community system.

=== Earliest States on the Territory of Our Country ===

==== Earliest Slaveowning States in the Caucasus and Central Asia ====

===== Basis of Slavery =====
In the primitive community oppression did not 
exist. But production, too, was in an embryonic state. With the development of herding, agriculture and domestic crafts, men were able to 
produce more than was necessary for their own subsistence. This led 
to the accumulation of stocks and the bartering of products among 
the clan communities. With the development of private family ownership of the means of production, individual families also engaged in 
inter-family barter. Such barter further stimulated production, which 
could no longer be maintained by the labour power of a single family 
or clan. 

Wars furnished a new source of labour power: prisoners of war 
were no longer killed, but were converted into slaves. War was now 
waged for the sake of capturing prisoners no less than for that of plunder. Wars still further increased property inequality. The rich could 
now enslave not only people of alien tribes, but also their own tribesmen 
and clansmen. Thus arose a division of society into classes: a class of 
slaveowners and a class of slaves. The slaveowner considered his slaves his absolute property, just as he did any other article that belonged to him. He could sell, buy and kill his slave just as he did 
his cattle. A slave had no property of his own. His labour was extensively employed in the economy. The condition of slaves was a very 
wretched one, yet compared to the primitive community, the system 
of slavery was a progressive stage.

===== Formation of the Slaveowning State =====
The state came into being 
with the development of property and class inequality. It was essential 
to the propertied class as a means of preserving amassed riches and 
maintaining its power over the slaves and the indigent population. 
The body politic arose on the ruins of the primitive community system. 

With the appearance of property inequality, clan and tribal chief
tains came to be elected from among the rich families. Wars of plunder 
enriched these chieftains still further and made them more powerful; 
with them their military retinues also enriched themselves. These 
retinues helped to make the rule of the chiefs hereditary. A special 
armed force, one which replaced the former tribal volunteer levy, 
was required to keep the slaves and the poor in subjection. Popular 
justice was replaced by a new court of law, one which served the interests of the ruling minority. In the clan, society had been governed 
according to traditional customs. Laws that protected the interests 
of the slaveowners appeared in the slaveowning state. A state power 
unknown under the primitive community system was formed in this 
manner. 

Ancient states expanded by subjugating weaker neighbouring 
tribes. Such multi-tribal states were unstable since they were founded 
not on economic ties but on the power of the conqueror. They therefore 
united or fell apart according to the success or failure of one or another 
military leader or ruler. 

===== Ancient Transcaucasian States =====
The first slaveowning state to 
appear on the territory of our country originated in Transcaucasia 
near Assyria. In the middle of the second millennium B,C. the mountainous land in the region of the triple lakes, Van, Sevan and Urmiya, 
and the upper reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and their 
tributaries, was occupied by small tribal unions. The Assyrian kings 
undertook frequent campaigns against them. This country of the 
triple lakes was named Urartu (Urardhu) by the Assyrian kings. 

In the beginning of the first millennium B.C. the small principalities of Urartu united under the supremacy of the stronger tribes. 
The united tribes, called Chaldeans — after the name of their god, 
Chaldu (Khaldu) — formed a kingdom headed by powerful rulers, 
who not only effectively repelled the attacks of the Assyrians, but 
themselves launched campaigns against them. A capital which was 
well protected in the south by the Iranian Mountain Range was built 
on the shore of Lake Van (near the present city of Van). During the 
9th-8th centuries before our era the dominions of Urartu expanded tremendously. 

To commemorate their victories the kings of Urartu left cuneiform inscriptions on rocks and cliffs, which were sometimes located 
in very inaccessible places. These writings, telling of important events 
in the history of Urartu, have been deciphered with great difficulty 
by Russian and foreign scientists. 

The kingdom of Urartu attained its maximum size and power in 
the middle of the 8th century B.C. In the north the Chaldeans seized 
the valley of the Araxes River and went as far as the Great Caucasian 
Mountain Range. During their successful campaigns against their 
neighbours, the Chaldeans destroyed settlements and forts, carried 
off rich spoils and herds, and either slew the inhabitants or captured 
and made them slaves. King Argishti, in an inscription engraved on 
a cliff at Van, records the massacre and enslaving of over 64,000 people 
effected by him in a single campaign. Thousands of slaves dug canals, 
were employed in economy, and built impregnable castles on high 
cliffs on the domains belonging to the king of Urartu and his lords. 
The buildings were erected without the use of mortar, merely by 
pressing stones tightly against each other. Spacious dwellings were 
also hewn out of stone cliffs. This demanded a tremendous expenditure 
of labour. The intricate water supply and irrigation systems were 
amazing engineering feats. The canal which supplied drinking water 
to the capital, Van, remained in use for over two thousand years. 
Grain and grape vines were cultivated in the irrigated regions and river valleys. Livestock breeding was of great economic importance. 
The Chaldeans were noted for their excellent bronze weapons and 
other bronze articles. Urartu was a state of slaveowners, the population being divided into freemen and slaves. The richest slaveowners 
were the king and his chief courtiers. 

At the end of the 8th century B.C. the power of Urartu began 
noticeably to wane. Nomads from the north pressed the Chaldeans 
hard. The Assyrian empire on the Tigris grew strong again. Sargon, 
the Assyrian king, routed the troops of the Urartu ruler, destroyed 
his capital, and carried off tremendous booty. Sargon carved the 
following inscription on a cliff as a record of his victory: "When the 
king of Urartu learned of the defeat of his troops, his heart quivered 
with fear, as the heart of a bird fleeing from an eagle." 

In the middle of the 6th century B.C. the Persian kingdom lying 
southeast of Urartu grew in power. The Chaldean tribes were weak
ened by their struggle against it. Their union under the rule of the 
Urartu kings had begxm to disintegrate. The very name, Chaldean, fell 
into disuse; Urartu was retained in the name Mt. Ararat. 

New tribal unions were formed on the former territory of Urartu 
in the 6th century B.C., which later developed into two nations— the 
Georgians and Armenians, The ancient Armenians lived on the land 
around Lake Van. The Karthveli (Karthli) and other kindred tribes 
who lived in the valleys of the Araxes and Kura rivers and the adjacent 
mountainous regions formed the Georgian people. At the end of the 6th 
century B.C. Armenia was compelled to submit to the rule of the Persian 
king, Darius I Hystaspes. Darius has left a lengthy inscription about 
his conquests, in which he describes how the Armenians rose up in 
rebellion against him, and how this rebellion was crushed only after 
five bloody engagements. Armenia had to pay heavy tribute to the 
Persian king. 

===== Ancient Peoples of Central Asia =====
In the first millennium B.C. the 
vast steppes of Central Asia were inhabited by numerous nomad tribes 
of herdsmen. According to the Greeks, these people were noted for 
their warlike spirit and bravery. All their weapons — arrows, spears, 
swords, axes — were made exclusively of copper and bronze. Women enjoyed great freedom and even took command in time of war. 

In the fertile river valleys the population engaged in agriculture. 
Among the agricultural people the clan system had already begun to 
disintegrate. Husbandry was carried on by a large patriarchal family 
which also included the slaves. Slave labour was used for the build
ing of artificial reservoirs and canals, which were of great importance in arid areas. The most important agricultural regions were 
Khoresm (Khwarizm) along the lower reaches of the Amu Darya, 
and Sogdiana on the Zeravshan River. Caravan routes crossed Central Asia, connecting the Caspian countries with Eastern Asia. The towns situated along these routes plied 
an active trade. The largest of these towns was Marakanda (now called 
Samarkand), the principal city of Sogdiana.

===== Campaign of Alexander the Great in Central Asia =====
In the 4th century B.C. Greece and Persia contended for world supremacy. Alexander, 
king of Macedonia, invaded Asia Minor, Iraq and Persia. He dreamed 
of conquering India. He defeated the army of the last Persian king, 
Darius III, and in the spring of the year 329 B.C. crossed the Hindu 
Kush Mountains and descended to the Central Asiatic plain, attracted 
by its natural resources and large population. 

The inhabitants of Sogdiana desperately resisted the Macedonians. 
Taking advantage of Alexander’s absence — he had set off for Syr Darya 
with the bulk of his forces — the rebellious population, led by 
Spitamen, massacred the Macedonian garrisons in the towns. Alexander 
the Great hastily returned to Sogdiana and devastated the land wantonly. 
However, in spite of their fearful losses, the people continued to resist. 
Spitamen, with detachments of horsemen, made unexpected sallies 
against the Macedonians and kept them in a state of constant alarm. 
After a protracted struggle, the Macedonians succeeded in routing 
Spitamen, who then retired to the steppes with the nomads who had 
been his allies. The nomads, however, fearing the Macedonians' ven
geance murdered Spitamen and sent his head to Alexander. Thus 
did this outstanding leader of the Sogdians meet his end. 

Having completed the conquest of Central Asia Alexander the 
Great marched against India. He died in the year 323 B.C., while he 
was preparing for new conquests. 

Following the death of Alexander the Great his empire, which consisted of a large number of conquered lands in no way united among 
themselves, fell apart. Several independent states, headed by the descendants of Macedonian generals, were formed on the territory conquered by Alexander. Greek (Hellenic) culture began to penetrate into 
the East after its conquest by Alexander. Greek warriors paved the 
way for merchants and craftsmen. Commerce between the Eastern 
countries and Greece increased. Greek art considerably influenced 
the art of the Eastern peoples. For this reason the Eastern 
states formed as a result of Alexander the Great’s conquests are called 
"Hellenic." 

The state of the Seleucids (named after one of Alexander’s gen
erals, Seleucus) was founded in Syria. It subjugated Transcaucasia 
including Georgia and Armenia, and part of Central Asia including 
Sogdiana. Gradually the population of these lands threw off the yoke 
of the Seleucid state. 

In the 3rd century B.C., Bactria became an independent state. 
Bactria (the territory of modern Tajikistan) was a flourishing slaveowning state at that period, and at various times included separate 
parts of Sogdiana, Ferghana, 
Kazakhstan, Afghanistan and 
Northwestern India. 

Bactria maintained intercourse 
with Siberia, which supplied gold 
to Central Asia, and with the Urals, 
where metal was mined. It also 
had ties with China, to which country a so-called "silk route" had 
been laid. The Bactrian kingdom 
reached the zenith of its development in the 2nd century B.C. 

===== Armenia under Tigranes II =====
After the destruction of the Seleucid 
state by the Romans in the year 190 
B.C. the Armenians rebelled against 
the Syrians and formed an independent slaveowning kingdom with 
its own dynasty of rulers. Armenia was at its greatest during the 1st 
century B.C. under Tigranes II, who crushed the might of the neighbouring Parthian king in Asia Minor, Persia and Turkmenia, Following this 
victory Tigranes II called himself the "king of kings" and even declared 
himself a god. He established a magnificent Eastern court at which 
he gave refuge to Greek philosophers and writers who had fled from 
Roman oppression. During his campaigns Tigranes II captured large 
numbers of Greeks, Jews and Arabs, and settled them in his towns. 
With the help of these settlers he tried to develop the crafts and trade. 

Tigranes II governed the country with the help of the rich slave
owners. Slaves cultivated the lands belonging to the king, the temples 
and the rich nobility. Tigranes II had a large, well-organized army. If 
necessary he raised a popular levy of slaveowners and their people. 
The army was organized on the Roman system. 

===== Georgia and Albania =====
Georgia, which comprised two large countries — Iberia and Colchis — was situated north of Armenia. Colchis was 
the name of a country bordering on the eastern extremity of the Black 
Sea famous for its auriferous sands and silver mines. East of Colchis 
was Iberia. The population inhabiting its mountainous regions engaged 
in herding and preserved the clan system. Both agriculture and horti
culture were developed in the plains. Slavery was introduced here in 
the 1st century B.C. 

Albania was located on the western shore of the Caspian Sea. 
The mountainous regions and lowlands of Albania were inhabited by 
numerous small tribes, which were ruled by their respective petty 
princes. These tribes often attacked their neighbours, the Iberians (Georgians) and Armenians. Later they united under the 
supremacy of the strongest 
tribe, the Albanians. Subsequently the descendants of 
the people of ancient Albania 
were incorporated into the 
Azerbaijan nation. 

==== Peoples of the Northern Black Sea Region ====

===== Scythians =====
The people 
occupying the steppeland 
from the Volga to the Dniester 
in the 8th-3rd centuries 
B.C. consisted of various 
tribes including cultivators 
and nomad herdsmen, who 
bore the common name of 
Scythians. 

We find descriptions of 
the life of the Scythian nomads in the accounts of 
Greek writers. All the property a Scythian possessed was contained in a four-wheeled or six-wheeled nomad ''kibitka'' — a waggon 
with a felt tilt drawn by two or three yoke of oxen. Each ''kibitka'' was 
a sort of little felt home in which the women and children lived. The 
Scythians roamed with their herds of horses, sheep and cattle, remaining 
in a given spot as long as there was sufficient pasturage for their cattle. 
Then they would leave in search of pasture land. Among the masses 
of nomads was a rich ruling nobility which possessed large herds that 
were tended by slaves. 

The Scythians were remarkable for their martial spirit and power 
of endurance, for their daring, and their cruelty to the enemy. They 
made wine-cups from the skulls of the people they killed, and quivers 
from their skin. A brave warrior was accorded the greatest honour. 
The Scythians held annual feasts at which only those who had slain 
one or more of the enemy were permitted to take a draught of wine 
from the common goblet. 

Every tribe had its king who was vested with great power. When a 
king died, his body was placed on a cart which was drawn throughout the 
entire land. The inhabitants who met the body of the king had to express profound grief: they cut their hair short, cut off part of an ear, scratched their faces, pierced their left hand with arrows. Kings were buried in huge barrows. With them were laid their arms, precious gold 
and silver vessels, and a large number of horses. Their wives and servants were also killed and buried with them. 

Scythian tombs, some of which rise to a height of 30-35 feet are 
extant in the south of our country. Many of them have been excavated 
and a large number of interesting objects found in them are now on 
display in our museums. 

In the large Chertomlyk barrow (not far from the city of Nikopol) 
on the Dnieper) a wonderful silver vase was discovered, with a frieze 
showing scenes of nomad life and Scythians breaking in wild mares. 
One section depicts two horses grazing freely in the steppe, in another 
scene some Scythians are having a hard time holding down a wild 
horse they have captured; in a third, three Scythians are trying to 
throw a horse to the ground. Then there is a picture of the horse after 
it had been tamed; a stooping Scythian is hobbling its forelegs. 

Of no less interest is a gold vase found in a barrow near Kerch (on 
the Kul-Oba Hill). One of the scenes pictures a sea ed Scythian, evidently a chief, listening to a tale or a warrior’s report. The chief’s long hair 
is tied with a headband. His clothing consists of a short kaftan confined by a belt, and loose, Turkish-like trousers. The chief is leaning on 
a long spear with both hands. A warrior is kneeling before the king. 
Another picture on the vase shows a Scythian fitting a string to his 
bow. Some other Scythian is treating the tooth of a third person. 
Still another picture portrays a 
Scythian bandaging someone’s diseased or injured leg. Several of the 
Scythians are wearing tall pointed 
hoods on their heads. All of them 
have quivers of arrows and cases 
for bows slung at their side. 

A golden comb, which apparently belonged to some Scythian 
king, was found in one of the barrows (Solokha). The upper part of 
the comb has a scene on it picturing 
a combat between three warriors: 
two foot soldiers (one of whom is undoubtedly a Scythian) are attacking a Greek horseman. Thus has an episode of the Scythian people’s struggle for independence from the Greek enslavers been preserved for history.

===== Greek Colonization of the Black Sea Coast =====
Greek slaveowners went to the Black Sea region in quest of slaves, and were also lured to 
that territory by its riches. They had 
heard that the Scythians possessed 
large herds of cattle and a great 
amount of grain, and also that there 
was gold in the Caucasus. Accounts 
of the Black Sea region have been 
preserved in Greek legends about 
the golden fleece, the adventures of  
Odysseus and others. The first Greeks 
to visit these shores were fishermen and tradesmen who bartered 
with the local inhabitants. Beginning with the 7th century B.C. 
permanent Greek colonies sprang 
up on the shores of the Black Sea.  
On the estuary of the Southern 
Bug and Dnieper arose the colony of
Olvia; not far from modern Sevastopol was Khersones; and on the southeastern shore of the Crimea — Feodosia and Panticapaeum (now Kerch). The city of Tanais was built at the mouth of the Don by the Sea of Azov; Greek colonies also arose 
on the Caucasian coast. 

The centre of each Greek colony was a city surrounded by a stone 
wall. This wall protected the Greek colonists from attack by the 
hostile population. Within the city wall were dwellings, stores and 
various public buildings, such as the temples and baths. Among these 
structures were some splendid works of Greek architecture, ornamented 
with marble columns and statues. 

Trade with Greece, with Eastern lands and the peoples of Eastern 
Europe was of great importance for the Greek colonies on the shores 
of the Black Sea. Vessels sailing for Greece were loaded with grain, 
slaves, furs and fish, while Greece exported weapons, fabrics, various 
utensils of clay and glass, costly ornaments and articles of luxury, 
and wine. Part of these imported goods went to satisfy the needs of the 
upper class of the local Greek population; part was exchanged for 
grain and other products supplied by the population of the northern 
Black Sea coast. Later the Greek cities developed their own crafts. 
Many of the articles found in the Scythian barrows were made in the 
workshops of the Black Sea colonies. The free Greek population in the 
colonies, as in Greece itself, met at "popular assemblies" to discuss 
various questions and to elect their functionaries. The entire administration was in the hands of the rich slaveowners and merchants. 
Every city-colony constituted a separate state. One 
such city, Panticapaeum, 
ruled a considerable territory, 
the so-called Bosporus kingdom. It was governed both 
by Greek and Scythian slaveowners, whose power was 
passed by inheritance from 
father to son. 

At the end of the 3rd 
century B.C. the condition of 
the Greek colonies along the 
Black Sea shore deteriorated. 
Tribes of nomads, Sarmatae, 
who were kin to the Scythians 
appeared on the Caspian 
steppes. Harassed by the Sarmatae, some of the Scythians, 
and other nomads moved 
westward and reached the 
Danube; others went to the Crimea and occupied its northern steppes. 

The Scythians who remained 
were assimilated by the Sarmatae 
and other tribes. The Greek cities 
found increasing difficulty in 
repulsing the attacks of the nomads. 

The Scythians who settled in 
the Crimea during the 2nd century B.C. often attacked Khersones and the Bosporus kingdom. 
At this time a Pontic kingdom 
was formed in Asia Minor, on the 
southern shore of the Black Sea. 

Khersones, which was not strong enough to defend itself, concluded a treaty with the king of Pontus, by 
which it was to receive help.

===== Slave Revolt in the Crimea =====
At the end of the 2nd century B.C. the 
Scythian slaves in the Bosporus kingdom rose in revolt. A slave of 
the Bosporus king, named Saumacus, slew the king and headed the 
uprising. The revolt was crushed by Diophantus, a general of King Mithridates VI of Pontus, who had come to Khersones to defend it against the 
Scythians. He captured Saumacus and sent him to Mithridates in Asia 
Minor. As a sign of their gratitude for the help rendered against the 
Scythians, the rulers of Khersones erected a bronze statue of Diophantus in the acropolis of the city near the altar of their most revered 
goddess. An inscription telling of the services and victories of 
Diophantus was carved on 
the marble pedestal. The inscription was found among 
the ruins of Khersones. 

The uprising of the slaves 
in the Crimea was not an isolated instance. Similar mass 
rebellions of slaves occurred 
in the 2nd and 1st centuries 
B.C. in many other slaveowning states — in Asia Minor, 
Greece, Italy, on the Island 
of Sicily and other places. These rebellions portended 
the end of the slaveowning system.

===== Roman Conquests in the Black Sea Region =====
During the 1st century B.C. Roman dominions rapidly spread eastward. In order to conquer Asia Minor Rome had to destroy the kingdoms of Pontus and 
Armenia. The struggle between Rome and King Mithridates VI of Pontus 
lasted almost 18 years. Finally, the Roman legions inflicted a serious 
defeat on Mithridates. Roman slaveowners invaded the domains of 
Tigranes II. They sacked the rich capital of Armenia (the city of Tigranocerta on the Tigris River). The people rose in defence of their land and 
inflicted a series of defeats upon the Romans. Other legions under Pompey were then sent against Tigranes II. Georgians, Medes and other 
peoples joined the Armenians against the Romans. Pompey took advantage of dissension among the Armenian nobility and forced Tigranes II 
to conclude peace. The Armenian king was named the "friend and ally 
of the Roman people," a title which signified the subordination of 
Armenia to Rome. Subsequently the Romans subjugated a considerable 
part of Georgia. 

During the 1st century B.C. the Romans established themselves 
firmly in the Black Sea region. The kings of Bosporus became the 
vassals of the Roman emperors and submissively executed all their orders. Roman legions were quartered in Khersones and other Greek cities 
of the Crimea and the Caucasus. Roman fortresses with towers from 
which the approach of enemy vessels could be observed, were built 
along the shore of the Black Sea. 

The kings of Bosporus began to use the names of Roman emperors 
and to wear Roman clothing. They received their insignia of royalty 
from Rome: the sceptre with an image of the emperor and the royal 
crown. Throughout the century-long existence of the Greek colonies, the 
descendants of the former colonists intermingled with the local population. Alien people of various tribes made their home in the Black Sea 
towns and became local citizens. In the Crimea, too, there was a mingling of different peoples and cultures. 

With the decline of the Roman empire, its influence in the Black 
Sea countries decreased still further. By the 3rd century A.D. the Roman fortresses in the Crimea and along the Caucasian shore became desolated. The former Greek cities became independent once again. A new 
union of tribes, known as the Goths, was formed on the southern steppes 
of the Black Sea region in the 3rd century. This union also included 
the eastern Germans, who had formerly inhabited the lower reaches of 
the Vistula. Towards the middle of the 3rd century the Goths began to 
invade Roman dominions beyond the Danube. At the same time Goth 
pirates plundered the Caucasian and Asia Minor coasts of the Black 
Sea and penetrated to the Aegean Sea, burning Greek towns. In the 4th 
century the Goths were severely defeated by the Romans. 

The attack of the Goths upon Rome’s eastern possessions marked the 
beginning of the struggle of various East European tribes against 
the Romans. During the same period a struggle was being waged in Western Europe between the Romans and the German tribes. The attacks of the "barbarians" (non-Romans) hastened the downfall of 
the slaveowning Roman empire. 

==== Nomads of Asia (from the 3rd century B.C. to the 8th century A.D.) ====
The vast steppes of Southern Siberia and Central Asia were inhabited by various tribes of nomads that later formed the Turkic and Mongolian peoples. Several centuries before our era the nomads living north 
of China formed a large tribal union. The Chinese called the nomads 
belonging to this union Huns. The Chinese waged an arduous strug
gle against the Huns, which lasted for centuries. The nomads made 
sudden raids on China’s northern territories, sacked the towns, ruined 
the harvest and carried off the population. When a large Chinese army 
was rallied, the nomads returned to the steppe and dispersed over its 
boundless expanses. 

In order to defend their frontiers the Chinese, as far back as the 
3rd century B.C., constructed solid stone fortifications which became 
known as the "Great Wall of China." Gradually Chinese influence 
made itself felt among the nomads. The Hun chief assumed the title 
of "born of heavens and the earth, the chosen of the sun and the 
moon." The Hun princes sent their sons to serve at the court of the Chinese emperor. 

The nomad ruling caste adopted Chinese customs and Chinese 
clothing. A Soviet expedition to Northern Mongolia, headed by P.K. Kozlov, which explored the exceedingly rich barrows of the Hun rulers, 
discovered chariots, Chinese silks, a magnificent rug picturing a 
winged animal tearing an elk apart, precious objects, parasols which were symbols of high honour, and other objects. 

The great Hun state decayed in the 1st century B.C. A large number of Huns moved westward. New tribes formerly under the domination of the Huns now came to the fore in the steppes of Asia.

===== Invasion of Eastern Europe by the Nomads =====
When the Hun state 
collapsed in Mongolia, some of the tribes moved westward in their 
attempt to escape the Chinese. Their descendants after intermingling 
with other peoples in the course of their roamings, appeared in Eastern 
Europe in the 4th century A.D. Contemporaries of the Huns called them 
"the fiercest warriors." Besides the Mongolian Huns, the Hun kingdom 
included the native population of Central Asia and the northern part 
of the Black Sea region. 

The Huns defeated the Goths and drove them west. The main Hun 
horde stopped between the Danube and the Tisia. For a brief space of 
time there was a strong Hun state in this locality, the king of which 
was Attila. After his death in 453, the Hun kingdom broke up: some 
of the Huns settled on the right bank of the Danube and mixed with 
the local population; others returned to their native haunts in the 
Black Sea steppes, where they were ethnically assimilated by the 
local population. 

The movement of the Huns west of the Volga along the northern 
shores of the Black Sea stimulated the migration of other tribes as 
well. Close upon the heels of the Huns, the Bulgars came to the Caspian 
steppes. But the Bulgars, too, were not long able to withstand the 
pressure of other nomads. The Bulgarian tribal union broke up into 
several parts. Some of these settled on the Volga (in the Bulgarian 
kingdom); others reached the Balkans, where they intermingled with 
the local Yugoslavic population, to whom it gave its ethnic name — 
Bulgar. 

===== Turkic Khanate =====
A group of tribes, known as the Turkic khanate, 
arose in Mongolia in the 6th century A.D. The ruler of this state was 
called a ''kaghan''. A large number of nomad and, to some extent, agricultural tribes were under the rule of this khanate. The ruling tribes under the leadership of their khan constantly raided their neighbours and 
spread their power over a vast territory. The rich and the nobles commanded the warrior detachments and governed the subjugated tribes. 
The bulk of the nomad population lived in separate clan communities. 

Tombstones of Turkic khans, bearing engraved inscriptions of 
remarkable campaigns and outstanding events, have been preserved 
in the valley of the Orkhon Hiver. 

The Turkomans of the khanate were hostile to the Turkic Kirghiz 
(Khakass) who inhabited the upper reaches of the Yenisei Hiver and 
the Altai Mountains. One of the inscriptions tells how a Turkic khan 
mounted his white stallion and set off with his troops against the Kirghiz. He threw one Kirghiz off his horse. Then with a spear in his hand, he rushed into the ranks of the enemy. While doing 
so he dug his spurs into his white horse so violently, that he broke 
the horse’s ribs. The Kirghiz khan was killed and the people submitted 
to the power of the Turkic khan. 

The Turkic state in Mongolia and Central Asia collapsed in the 
8th century A.D. After the fall of the Turkic khanate, the Kirghiz 
(Khakass), who had as many as 80,000 warriors and a large population proved to be the strongest people. 

And so throughout many centuries the vast lands of Southern 
Siberia and Central Asia saw the continuous rise and fall of one or 
another tribal union. The nomads in their search for better pasturage 
and plunder, traversed a large section of the Central Asiatic steppes. 
Part of the nomads settled in the new places; others continued further west. They were drawn to those regions by the fertile, grassy plains 
which spread out like a heavy green blanket northwest of the Caspian 
Sea.

==== Early Feudal States in Transcaucasia ====

===== The Struggle Between Rome and Persia (Iran) for Armenia and Georgia =====
Rome ceased to exist as a slaveowning empire in the 4th-5th centuries A.D. The peoples of Europe and Asia, including those 
of Parthia and Persia, rose against her. Persia subjugated Parthia, 
Albania (Azerbaijan) and a considerable part of Georgia and Armenia. 
Only a small part of Western Armenia and Western Georgia remained 
under Roman power. At the end of the 4th century the Roman empire 
fell apart and was divided into two empires: the Eastern and the Western. The Eastern Roman empire (Byzantium) continued its struggle 
against Persia for possession of Armenia and Georgia.

===== The Birth of Feudalism in Armenia and Georgia =====
About the middle of the 1st century A.D. the Arsacid dynasty was established 
in Armenia. With great solemnity the Roman Emperor, Nero, received an Armenian embassy and personally placed a crown upon 
the head of the Armenian king. It was approximately in the 4th 
century A.D., when kings of the Arsacid dynasty were in power, 
that feudal relations originated in Armenia. Slave labour was not 
very productive and even became unprofitable with the development 
of agriculture and the crafts and improvements in working tools. It 
was therefore superseded by the labour of feudal subjects. Serfs who 
lived on the lands of their feudal lords had their own little farms and 
the necessary implements. They tilled the land of the feudal lord and 
fulfilled other services for him. The lord could no longer kill his serf 
with impunity, as he had killed his slave, but he still retained the 
right to buy and sell serfs. Under serfdom the peasant was interested, to a certain degree, in husbandry as a means of livelihood and to pay his lord a tax in kind, 
that is, with the products of his own harvest. The big landowners 
forced the peasants to do all the work on their estates and to render 
all manner of service. Every rich feudal lord had his own castle and 
troops. The feudal nobility seized the most important posts. The great 
feudal lords formed the king’s court, and attended state ceremonies 
at which they occupied places according to seniority. 

At the end of the 3rd century A.D. the Armenian king and nobility 
adopted Christianity from Byzantium, and it became the national 
religion of Armenia. Byzantium supported the Christian church, using 
it to strengthen her influence. The church contributed to the final 
establishment of feudalism in Armenia, though ancient pagan beliefs 
persisted for a long time among the peasant population. 

In the Byzantine part of Armenia the power of the king was destroyed at the end of the 4th century, and the country was ruled by Byzantine officials appointed by the emperor. Similarly the rule of the 
king in that part of Armenia which was under Persian sway soon 
came to an end. With the termination of the king’s rule the power of 
the large landowners was still further augmented. 

Mesrob Mashtots, a monk, born of a peasant family, perfected the 
Armenian alphabet in the early part of the 5th century. This marked 
the beginning of an Armenian literature; instruction in the schools 
was carried on in the native language; youths were sent to Egypt 
and Byzantium to perfect their knowledge of the sciences. An extensive literature, both original and translated, appeared. 

A kingdom was formed in Western Georgia on the territory of 
ancient Colchis in the 4th century A.D. This land was inhabited by 
ancient Georgian tribes of Lazis, whence the Romans and Greeks 
derived their name for the land — Lazica. The centre of this land was 
the fertile valley of Rion, which was covered with vineyards and 
orchards. This valley was also the site of a considerable number of 
towns, including Kutaisi, which engaged in commerce. After a long 
struggle with Persia, Lazica remained under Byzantine rule. The 
Eastern Georgian lands formed part of another kingdom, Karthli 
(ancient Iberia). In the beginning of the 5th century the king of Karthli became a vassal of Persia. As everywhere else, the development 
of feudal relations in Georgia enhanced the power of the landowning 
nobility, which tried to limit the king’s power. Christianity began 
to penetrate into Georgia via the cities along the Black Sea shore. 
With the aid of Byzantium it became firmly established as the state 
religion of Karthli in the middle of the 4th century, and in Lazica 
in the beginning of the 6th century. Christianity strengthened the 
cultural ties between Georgia and Byzantium. Translations of religious writings appeared simultaneously with translations of Greek 
philosophical and historical works. This stimidated the growth of Georgian literature. The peoples of Transcaucasia did not cease their 
struggle for liberation. At the end of the 5th century the Karthlian 
king, Vakhtang, who was called the "Wolf's Head" because of the 
emblem in the form of a wolf’s head on his helmet, fought against 
Persia. During one of the engagements he was mortally wounded. 
After his death the Persian feudal lords assumed power. The country 
was then ruled by a Persian satrap who settled in Tbilisi. 

===== The Struggle of the Peoples of Transcaucasia Against Persian and Byzantine Domination =====
Byzantine and Persian domination in 
Georgia, Armenia and Albania (Azerbaijan) was accompanied by 
the terrible oppression and devastation of these lands. The population 
was brought to the point of despair by intolerable tribute and compulsory services. The conquerors conscripted the Armenian and Georgian youth into their armies. These conditions led to frequent bloody 
popular uprisings in Georgia, Armenia and Albania (Azerbaijan). 
The rebellions were notably powerful when the Georgians and Armenians joined forces against the common enemy. Pilled with hatred 
for their enslavers, these peoples won many a victory over numerous 
and better armed enemy detachments. While the people fought heroically and staunchly for the liberation of their country, the rich feudal 
lords often turned traitors and went over to the camp of their country’s 
enemies. This made it easier for Persia and Byzantium to crush the 
uprisings of the people.

===== Struggle of the People of Transcaucasia against the Arabs =====
Persia’s rule in Armenia and Georgia lasted until the 7th century, 
when the Arabs, soon after reducing the Persian empire, conquered 
Transcaucasia and Central Asia. In 642 they seized the capital of 
Armenia, Dvin, and within a few years conquered all of Armenia 
and Eastern Georgia. In the 9th-10th centuries there was a considerable number of rich cities in Transcaucasia — Tbilisi (Tiflis), Derbent, 
and others, which carried on trade and the crafts and maintained 
intercourse with Eastern Europe. Tbilisi became the residence of 
the Arabian emir. The country was ruled by his ostikans — governors. 
With the arrival of the Arabs the Moslem faith spread among the 
people of Transcaucasia. 

The peasants of Transcaucasia frequently rose in revolt against 
their Arabian conquerors, who were ruining the land with their exactions and turning the local population into slaves and serfs. A big 
uprising of peasants, craftsmen, and slaves occurred in the first half 
of the 9th century in Azerbaijan, under the leadership of the gallant 
chieftain Babek. Babek was orphaned when still a child. After his 
father’s death, when he was only 10 years old, the boy was turned 
over to a rich herdsman, for whom he worked as a shepherd. Later 
he became a camel driver. This enabled him to study the life of the Azerbaijan people at first hand. The sufferings of these people, oppressed by heavy taxes and other exactions, aroused in Babek a feeling of irreconcilable hatred for the oppressors and enslavers, especially for the Arabian rule. Babek, who was only 18 years old at that 
time, joined a popular uprising and soon became its leader. Finding 
protection in the inaccessible, high mountain regions, Babek fought 
tenaciously against the Arabs. The rebels won several victories over 
powerful Arabian detachments. 

It was only after long years of struggle that the Arabs succeeded 
in occupying the chief insurgent areas. Babek went into hiding in 
the mountains and from there he continued guerilla warfare against 
the Arabs and the local feudal lords who had betrayed their own people. All attempts to surround and capture Babek failed. Then one 
of the powerful feudal lords, pretending to be a supporter of Babek's, 
invited him to his castle. There Babek was treacherously seized and 
turned over to the Arabs. He was executed upon the order of the caliph. 
The uprising was suppressed. This determined struggle of the Azerbaijan people for independence lasted over twenty years. 

The disintegration of the Arab caliphate, which began at the 
end of the 9th century, led to the restoration of the rule of the local 
wealthy families in Georgia and Armenia. 

In 864 Ashod I, who represented one of the most powerful families 
of Armenia, became king of Armenia and founded a new dynasty 
of the Bagratids, which ruled until the middle of the 11th century. 
This dynasty succeeded in uniting a large part of Armenia. The city 
of Ani (not far from the city of Kars) became the capital of the Bagratids and the trade centre between the East and the West. The city 
was beautified by a number of splendid buildings which point to the 
flourishing state of Armenian architecture. From his study of the 
ruins of the city of Ani, Academician N. Marr, famous Soviet scientist, 
retraced the history of the language and culture of ancient Armenia. 

After the fall of the Arab caliphate, Georgia broke up into a number 
of rival independent feudal principalities. It was only in the second 
half of the 10th century that one of these, the Tao-Klarzhetsk, succeeded in uniting these principalities under the power of the kings 
of the Georgian Bagratid dynasty. 

===== Armenian Epic, "David of Sasun" =====
The memory of the age-long struggle of the Armenian people against their conquerors, the 
Arabs, has come down to us in a beautiful epic poem, ''David of Sasun''. 
It tells of the adventures and feats of four generations of Armenian 
knights. Two brothers built a fortress of huge stones high in the mountains which they named Sasun ("Wrath"). Poor people came to Sasun 
from all parts of the country to seek protection, and it became the 
bulwark of the people’s struggle against the enemies of their native 
land. David of Sasun is the central figure of the poem. When still 
a youth he fought against the Arabs, who were oppressing his people. The Arab sovereign set off with a large army against Sasun. He had 
so many warriors that they dried the rivers on their way by each of 
them merely drinking a mouthful of the water. Yet the enemy’s might 
did not daunt David. "Brothers and sisters!" David exclaimed. "Fear 
not the enemy; I shall go and fight the foe for you." David mounted 
his father’s miraculous steed and engaged the enemy in battle. He 
slew the enemy warriors, sparing those, however, who had been forcibly driven to war. He also slew the Arabian king and liberated the 
prisoners:

<blockquote>
I break the bonds that do enslave,

Return, you all, to friends and those you love so true.  

Return, you, home, return and there your life renew.  

Nor fees nor tribute do I crave.
</blockquote>

David had a son, Mger the Younger, who was as puissant and 
dauntless as his father. Left an orphan, Mger continued the struggle 
against the enemies of his native land. The poem tells how Mger stepped 
up to a cliff and with a powerful blow cleaved it in two. Riding 
his grandfather’s miraculous steed, he vanished into the fissure, where 
he will remain until the old, unjust world is destroyed.

<blockquote>
As long as the world is all sin 

As long as deceit stands to win,

So long do I part with this world. 

When all is destroyed and created anew, 

When barley grows large as the berries I knew, 

Oh then will I welcome my day! 

This place will I leave on that day!
</blockquote>

In these words of Mger the Younger the Armenian people expressed their undying dream of a better life. Centuries passed, generations changed, but the bards, from age to age, continued to sing 
of the knights of Sasun, of their feats in their struggle against evil, and of their great love for their native land.

==== Peoples of Central Asia in the Struggle against the Arabs ====

===== Conquest of Central Asia by the Arabs =====
At the time of 
the Arabian conquest Central Asia consisted of several states which 
were constantly at war with each other. The most important 
of these was Sogdiana, a land of fertile oases, rich foothills and mountain valleys. Its territory was studded with the castles of landowning 
princelings who were practically independent of each other. The most powerful of them was the ruler of Samarkand, who called himself the "Sogdianian king." West of Samarkand was Bokhara. Along 
the lower reaches of the Amu Darya stood Khoresm. 

The steppes of Central Asia were populated by nomad tribes. The 
incursions of Turkic tribes from the east grew more insistent. In the 
early part of the 8th century they tried to seize the agricultural regions of Central Asia and its rich commercial cities, but were repulsed 
by the Arabs. 

In 751 the Arabs routed both the Turkomans and the Chinese on 
the banks of the Talass River and also conquered Central Asia. 

The population of Sogdiana — the Sogdians, remote ancestors of 
the Tajiks — desperately resisted the Arab aggression. This agricultural people found an ally in the nomads, who came to their aid. It took 
the Arabs about 75 years to completely subjugate the lands between 
the Amu Darya and Syr Darya. Khoresm, Sogdiana, Bokhara and other 
Central Asiatic lands became part of the Arab caliphate in the middle 
of the 8th century. In most cases the Arabs permitted the local princelings to retain their lands and power, but made them their tributaries. 
The caliph sent his governors to the larger cities and established permanent Arabian garrisons there. 

The prosperous merchants took advantage of the Arabian conquest 
to trade with the caliphate dominions. Large numbers of Arabs settled 
in the towns, and noticeably influenced the local culture. The Moslem 
faith spread among the ruling class of the local population, and the 
Arabian tongue became the language of literature and of the state. 

The agricultural population, who had heretofore rendered various 
services to their landowners, now also had to pay heavy taxes in kind 
to the Arabs. This tax sometimes amounted to as much as half their 
crops. The people, ''i.e.'', the peasants, slaves and indigent city population, were in constant rebellion against the Arab yoke. 

===== The Revolt of Mokanna =====
The greatest uprising took place in 
the seventies of the 8th century. It was called the revolt of "the white-shirted," since the peasants wore simple white clothing. The leader of 
the popular lebellion was Hashim-ibn Hakim, who was known among 
the people as Mokanna, which means "The Veiled." 

Mokanna used to wash clothes in his youth. Later he had command 
of one of the rebel detachments. He was captured by the Arabs and 
spent some years in a dungeon, but succeeded in escaping, and began to 
prepare a general uprising of the peasants against the Arabs and local 
landowners. This rebellion lasted about seven years. The insurgents 
seized and destroyed castles, killed the local landowners who had joined 
the enemies of their native land, and wiped out the Arabian garrisons in the towns. To subdue the peasant uprising, the Arabian emirs 
raised a huge army equipped with battering rams. Several fierce battles took place in which the peasant army suffered heavy defeats. Mokanna was killed, but the people did not cease to rebel against the Arabs. 

===== The State of the Samanids =====
When the Arab caliphate collapsed 
in Central Asia in the second half of the 9th century, the ancient Tajik 
state of the Samanids was formed (subsequently the name Tajik was 
given to the native Sogdiana population), with the city of Bokhara 
as its capital. The kings of the Samanid dynasty tried to create a 
strong, centralized power, such as was necessary to combat the nomads. 
They stubbornly opposed individual petty rulers who tried to establish 
an independent rule. 

Thanks to the power of the Samanids, quiet set in in the Central 
Asiatic steppes. This stimulated trade and life in the cities. The largest cities (Bokhara, Samarkand and Merv) engaged in a lively trade 
with eastern and western countries, particularly with China and the 
Volga region. 

Literature and learning flourished during the reign of the Samanids, 
Poets and scholars (philosophers, doctors, geographers, mathematicians, historians and others) created an exceedingly rich literature in 
the Arabian and Persian languages. Numerous valuable manuscripts 
were stored in the royal library at Bokhara. Each department of science 
or literature in the library had a special room to itself, and the library 
had an efficiently-kept catalogue. The famous philosopher, naturalist and doctor, Avicenna (ibn-Sina) lived and worked in Bokhara at 
the end of the 10th century. Later his works were translated into Latin 
and became widespread in medieval Europe. 

==== Khazars and Bulgars on the Volga ====

===== The Khazar State on the Volga =====
The Turkic-Khazars formed a 
strong Khazar state on the Lower Volga in the 7th century. The Khazars were a semi-nomad people. In the winter they lived in the cities, 
and in the spring they took their herds out to the steppes to graze. 
Herding remained their chief occupation, although they also engaged 
in agriculture, and grapevine cultivation. The Khazars were still 
divided into clans, each of which possessed its own section of land. 
However, the clan system had already begun to decay, and an influential group of the nobility in the clan came to the fore. The Khazar 
kingdom was headed by a ''khakan'' or king, who was surrounded by 
rich dignitaries. The king was rendered divine homage. The country, 
however, was governed by a lord lieutenant and not by the khakan 
himself. 

The khakan lived in Itil, a populous city situated upon the delta 
of the Volga. Outside the city walls were wooden dwellings and felt nomad tents. The royal brick palace was situated on an island connected with the bank by a floating bridge. The eastern side of the city was inhabited by visiting merchants — people from Khoresm, Arabs, Greeks, 
Jews and others. The many markets here had a diversity of wares from 
Central Asia, the Caucasus, the Volga region and the Slavonic lands. 
Itil was an important centre for southeastern trade, and its commercial intercourse with Khoresm was of especial importance. The duty 
which the merchants paid the Khazars constituted one of the chief 
sources of income for the khakan’s treasury. The regular intercourse 
with Transcaucasia and Khoresm had an important influence on 
the constitution of the Khazar state and the everyday life of its 
population. The Khazar ruling class and the king embraced 
Judaism. 

Another important Khazar city was Sarkel on the Don. Sarkel 
was built with the help of Byzantine engineers, and was intended to 
afford protection against irruptions of nomads from the north and the 
east. 

The Khazar state reached the zenith of its power in the 9th century. 
In the south the Khazars in alliance with Byzantium fought against 
the Arabs and even went as far as the Araxes River. West of the Volga, 
the lands between the Caspian and Azov seas belonged to the Khazars, 
who at one time had subjugated part of the Crimea and imposed tribute upon the Slavonic tribes living along the Dnieper and the Oka 
rivers. In the north their power extended to the middle reaches of the 
Volga. 

The closest neighbours of the Khazars were the Pechenegs, who, 
in the 9th century, roamed between the Yaik (the Ural) River and 
the Volga. Harassed by other nomad tribes as well as by the Khazars, 
the Pechenegs moved further west in the second half of the 9th century, and occupied the steppe between the Don and the Dnieper. 

===== Bulgar State on the Volga and Kama =====
The union of Bulgar 
tribes on the Volga broke up as a result of the constant attacks of other 
nomads. Some of the Bulgars migrated to the Danube. Here they were 
absorbed by the Slavs, but they handed down their own tribal name to 
these people. Others went north up the Volga and settled on the lands 
along the lower reaches of the Kama and the Middle Volga, where 
they formed an independent state. During this period of migration 
to the Kama and the Volga, the Bulgars were still nomads. In their 
new environment they turned to agriculture. According to the accounts 
of Arab writers, the Bulgars cultivated wheat, barley and millet. 

In the Bulgar state the power belonged to the king, the tribal chieftains and the tribal nobility. Most of the towns were situated near the 
confluence of the Kama and the Volga. The Arabs called the Bulgar 
capital on the Volga, the "Great City." Merchants from the Slav lands, 
from Transcaucasia, Byzantium and Central Asia, paid annual visits 
to the capital of Bulgaria. From the Slav lands they brought strong, stalwart slaves and valuable furs. Arabian merchants came with steel swords, silk and cotton fabrics, and various rich ornaments. 

The Bulgars themselves made journeys for furs to the north, which 
they called the "land of gloom." They bartered with the trappers of 
that country. The Bulgar merchants would lay out their wares in a pre-arranged spot and then depart. The following day they would find 
animal skins set out beside their own goods. If the Bulgar merchant 
was satisfied with the bargain, he took the furs and left his own wares. 
If not, he would not touch the skins but would take back his own 
goods. Arabian culture, which was more highly developed, penetrated 
Bulgaria with the eastern trade. By the 10th century the ruling class 
of Bulgars had already taken over the Moslem faith from the Arabs. 
In imitation of the Arabs, the Bulgars began to mint their own coins. 

In the beginning of the 10th century ibn-Fadhlan visited Bulgaria 
as a member of an Arabian embassy. He left a most interesting description of his travels. The Bulgar king met the embassy not far from the 
capital. The envoys were ushered into a large, richly appointed tent, 
with Armenian rugs spread on the ground. The king sat on a throne 
covered with Byzantine brocades. On his right hand sat the chiefs of 
his subject tribes. During the feast the guests were regaled with chunks 
of meat and drinks made of honey. Ibn-Fadhlan also saw Russian 
merchants there. They were strong stalwart people. Each of them was 
armed with a battle-ax, a knife and a sword, with which he never parted. 

After the formation of the Bulgar and Khazar kingdoms, the Volga 
became a very important trade route between Europe and Asia. Its 
upper reaches closely approach the Western Dvina, which flows into 
the Baltic Sea. Thus there was an almost complete river route between 
the Caspian and the Baltic seas. Where there was a break in the river 
system, boats were hauled overland by "portage." 

Arabian merchants came in great numbers to trade on the Volga 
in the 8th-10th centuries. They paid for their purchases with dirhems, 
small silver Arabian coins, which were current throughout Eastern 
Europe, including the Baltic states, Scandinavia and even Germany.

== The Kiev State ==

=== Formation of the Kiev State ===

==== The Slavs in the 6th–9th Centuries ====

===== The Slavs in the 6th and 7th Centuries =====
The ancestors of the 
Slavs, one of the most numerous peoples in Europe, inhabited the 
greater part of Eastern Europe since time immemorial . According to 
Roman writers of the 1st and 2nd centuries A.D., who knew the Slavs 
as Venedi, the Slavs lived along the Vistula and on the southern shore 
of the Baltic Sea. 

Byzantine writers of the 6th century referred to the Eastern Slavs 
as Antes. The Eastern Slavs lived in the region of the Carpathians, 
the lower reaches of the Danube, along the Dniester, the Dnieper and 
the Don, occupying almost the whole of the southern part of Eastern 
Europe as far as the coasts of the Black Sea and Azov Sea. The Eastern 
Slavs engaged in agriculture, herding, fishing and hunting. They were 
also acquainted with the working of metals. Their dwellings consisted 
of huts made of interwoven brushwood or reeds covered with clay. 
Their villages were surrounded by ditches, earthen ramparts, and wooden walls. 
The Eastern Slavs at that time still preserved the clan system. All matters of tribal concern were decided at tribal meetings called 
the ''veche'' (from the word ''veshchat'' meaning ''to speak''). Influential members 
of the community became head-men or princes; some of them were 
influential not only in their own, but in neighbouring tribes as 
well. 

Patriarchal slavery existed among the Eastern Slavs, but slave 
labour did not play a significant role in their economy. Captives were 
either sold to foreign merchants, were permitted to return to their 
own land for a ransom, or, after spending several years in captivity, 
were given their freedom and the right to stay in the community as 
freemen. 

Beginning with the 5th century, the Eastern and Western Slavs, 
year after year, ravaged the Danube lands which formed part of the 
Byzantine empire. Tall, strong and very hardy, the Slavs were inured 
to heat, cold and hunger. In war they displayed great adroitness and 
cunning, and though armed only with shields and javelins, rushed 
boldly at the enemy. During the wars with Byzantium the Slavs mastered the Byzantine military art and acquired weapons which they 
learned to use even better than the Byzantines themselves. 

From the 6th century the Slavs no longer confined themselves to 
raiding the frontier regions of the Byzantine empire, but also began 
to settle on the conquered lands. They peopled the entire northern part 
of the Balkan Peninsula almost as far as Constantinople and even penetrated the Peloponnesus. 

A nomad horde of Bulgars invaded the Danube Valley in the 7th 
century. Culturally, the Danube Slavs, an agricultural people, were 
far superior to the Bulgar herdsmen. This explains why the Bulgars who 
settled on the Danube lands were quickly Slavonicized. The descendants 
of the Bulgar princes headed the Slavonic kingdom which was formed 
at the end of the 7th century south of the Danube and which was 
called Bulgaria (or Bulgaria on the Danube, in contradistinction to 
Bulgaria on the Kama). 

===== Slavonic Tribes in the 8th-9th Centuries =====
In the 8th and 9th centuries the Eastern Slavs split up into several tribes. The Slavonic tribes 
which had once inhabited the Black Sea steppes and its shores had, 
for the most part, been swept away by the influx of nomads. The ''Polyane'' (from the word ''polye'' meaning ''field'') lived along the middle reaches 
of the Dnieper in the region of Kiev, bordering on the steppe. The land 
west of the Polyane (in the western regions of the present Ukraine) was 
inhabited by the ''Dulebi'' or ''Volynyane'' (''Volhynians''), while south of them, 
in what is today the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic as far as the 
Lower Danube dwelt the ''Tivertsi'' and ''Ulichi''. Northwest of the Polyane, 
as far as the Pripyat, a tributary of the Dnieper, were the ''Drevlyane'', the 
"forest dwellers" (from ''drevo'' meaning ''tree'') and the ''Dregovichi'' (''dryagva'' — swamp) . The ''Severyane'' lived on the left bank of the Dnieper, along its tributary, the Desna. The vast expanse along the upper 
reaches of the Dnieper, beginning from the Smolensk region, and along 
the Western Dvina, was inhabited by the ''Krivichi''. The ''Radimichi'', 
who dwelt along the Sozh River, a tributary of the Dnieper, formed 
a separate tribe. The Slavs inhabiting the shores of Lake Ilmen were 
known as the Ilmen Slavs, or the Novgorod Slavs, after the city of 
Novgorod. East of the Dnieper basin, along the Oka and its tributary, the Moskva River, lived the ''Vyatichi''.

===== Pursuits and Social System of the Eastern Slavs =====
In the 8th and 
9th centuries the Eastern Slavs were chiefly an agricultural people. 
In wooded areas agriculture was carried on in forest clearings, the under
brush being cut away and the large trees being stripped of their bark to 
rot away. The next year the patch was prepared for cultivation by firing 
the soil and loosening it with hoes, or it was ploughed up. Besides 
agriculture an important place in the economy of the group was 
occupied by such pursuits as hunting, collecting the honey of wild 
bees, and fishing. In the southern regions agriculture was of greater 
importance than in the north. 

By the 9th century the clan system among the Eastern Slavs declined noticeably, though certain clan survivals still persisted. One 
instance of these survivals, though more rarely practised, was the blood 
feud. Wedding rites characteristic of the patriarchal clan still survived. 
Some of the more backward tribes clung to their custom of abducting 
women. In other tribes a wife would be bought for a ''veno'', a purchase 
price. The richer men had several wives. But the clan, as such, practically no longer existed. Clans broke up into separate, large families 
which, no longer held together by ties of kinship, continued to live as 
neighbours on a common territory and formed an agrarian community. 
Such an agrarian community the Eastern Slavs called the ''verv''. The 
husbandmen who belonged to such a community were called ''smerds''. 
The ''verv'' possessed in common forests, pasture land, etc. Every family 
that joined the community had the right to graze its cattle on the 
common pasture land, to extract honey of wild bees from the hollows 
of trees in the common forest, and to set traps for birds and beasts. 
Tilths were the absolute property of the respective families. The 
centre of the community was the fortified town which sheltered its 
members in case of danger. Gradually a group of wealthier elders 
took the lead in the community, and acquired large tracts of land. 
These lands were cultivated not only by members of their families; some 
of the prisoners were now made slaves and also forced to work. However, like other European peoples, the Slavs advanced from the clan 
system directly to feudalism without adopting the intermediary slave
holding system, since the slaveholding system was a stage through which man had already passed.

In time of war, chieftains — princes — were chosen from among 
the elders. Leadership in time of war afforded the princes a new means
of enrichment inasmuch as they would always receive the lion’s share 
during the division of spoils and captives. This enabled the princes 
to maintain a retinue of warriors whose chief means of existence was 
warfare. With the help of their retinue the princes seized the power 
in their own tribes. 

Each tribe was ruled by several princes, one of whom was considered the grand prince. This grand prince was supposed to consult 
with the other tribal princes and the elders on all questions concerning the tribe. Sometimes a meeting of the entire tribe, the ''veche'', was 
called.

Such tribal principalities originated in the 9th century among 
all the Slavonic tribes of Eastern Europe. The centres of these principalities were the towns that served as the residences of the princes 
and their retinue. The following towns were already known in the 9th 
century: Kiev in the land of the Polyane; Chernigov in the land of the 
Severyane; Smolensk on the Dnieper and Polotsk on the Western Dvina 
in the land of the Krivichi; Novgorod of the Ilmen Slavs, and others. 

The Slavonic tribes east of the Dnieper (the Vyatichi and Severyane) 
and also the Polyane, who bordered on the steppe, were conquered by 
the Khazars in the 9th century. They paid tribute in the form of furs 
to the Khazar khakan.

===== Religion of the Eastern Slavs =====
Until the 10th century the Slavs 
were heathens. They believed in the forces of nature, which they vested 
with human qualities. Everything that surrounded them — the stones, 
streams, trees, the grass — they endowed with miraculous powers: they 
made sacrifices to nature, decorated the boughs of "sacred" trees 
with bits of cloth, threw offerings into the water. According to the 
Slavs the birds and beasts also possessed miraculous powers. 

The Slav world was peopled with spirits. They believed that 
every forest had its wood-goblin upon whom the success of the hunt 
depended. Before starting on a hunting expedition the Slavs left a 
piece of bread for the wood-goblin on a tree stump. The deep still 
waters of rivers, the Slavs believed, were the abode of the water-goblins whom they tried to propitiate before going to fish. The waters 
were also inhabited by water-nymphs. Every Slav had his household 
god (the ''Domovoy'', hearth-god) in his hut, who helped him to run the 
household. 

The Slavs believed in the power of the sky, the sun, thunder and 
lightning. Their chief deity was the sun, or ''Dazbog'' the son of ''Svarog'', the 
god of heaven. In the summer when the days were longest, the Slavs 
held a big feast in honour of the sun. In ancient times on the eve of 
June 24 (old style calendar) a maiden was thrown into the water as 
a sacrifice to the gods. Later a puppet was used for this purpose 
and the people bathed in the river. This night was called ''Kupalskaya'' (from ''kupat'' — to bathe), or Midsummer Eve. Fire, according 
to the Slavs, was the son of the sun. The god of thunder was 
''Peroun''. They believed that Peronn drgve across the sky in his chariot 
and slew evil spirits with his fiery arrows. Thus did the Slavs explain 
the phenomena of thunder and lightning. ''Stribog'' was the god of the 
wind. The patron of herding and agriculture was the "cattle god," 
''Veles''. He was also revered as the patron of bards. 

One of the beliefs of the Slavs was that the souls of the dead continued to live after death. Food was left on the graves for the deceased. 
Their funeral rites were in conformity with the cult of the dead. Not 
all Slav tribes had the same rites: in some places the body was 
buried in a grave, in others the corpse was burnt and the ashes interred. 
A mound was put up over the grave. The deceased was fully 
equipped for his future life; various household objects (a knife, flint, 
weapons, utensils, etc.) were laid in the grave. When a rich man 
died his wife and slaves were all interred with him. A wake was held 
to honour the dead, attended by military games and feasting in which 
the dead man was supposed to be a participant. 

The Eastern Slavs had no temples. Wooden idols were set up in 
open-air shrines . Sacrifices were made to propitiate the gods and receive 
their support or appease their wrath. Sometimes these were human 
sacrifices. The Slavs believed that there were people who could divine 
the will of the gods. and they called such people ''volkhvy'', or wizards. The 
latter were supposed to know special incantations by which they could 
control the powers of nature, cure the sick, transform themselves into 
werewolves, etc. The pagan beliefs of the Slavs such as the belief in 
household gods, wood-goblins and other superstitions persisted among 
the people for many centuries. 

===== The Neighbours of the Slavs =====
The southeastern part of the Baltic 
seacoast from the Niemen River to the Western Dvina was occupied by 
Lithuanian tribes. Those living between the Niemen and the Vistula 
were called ''Litovtsi-Prussi''. The right tributaries of the Lower Niemen 
were inhabited by the ''Litovtsi-Zhmud''. The region of the middle reaches 
of the Niemen was occupied by the Lithuanians proper (Litva). 
This name was later applied to all Lithuanian tribes. The right 
bank of the lower reaches of the Western Dvina was the home of the 
''Letygols'', and the left bank - the ''Zimigols'' (''Semigallia''). These two 
tribes subsequently formed the Latvian people. The land along the 
watersheds flowing into the Baltic Sea was covered with dense forests 
and swamps. The Lithuanians lived in these forest jungles in small 
settlements; they had neither towns nor fortifications. Their small 
clan and tribal unions were in no way connected with each other. 
The population engaged in hunting, agriculture, and, to some extent, 
in herding. The Lithuanians who lived along the seacoast fished, 
collected amber, which was highly prized at that time, and traded with neighbouring peoples (notably the Scandinavians). 

Various Ural-Altaic tribes lived northeast of the Lithuanians and 
Slavs: the ''Chudes'' (''Esths''), ''Merya'', ''Mordvinians'', ''Cheremissi'' (''Mari'') and 
others. They occupied the forest land in the northeast of Europe. Their 
chief occupations were hunting and fishing. The northern woods abounded in sable, marten, squirrel, fox and other valuable fur-bearing 
animals. The pelts of these animals were bought by eastern merchants 
on the Volga and by European merchants on the shore of the Baltic. The 
people lived in mud-huts, selecting as sites for their settlements places 
which offered a natural protection and shielded them against attacks 
of the enemy. 

===== The Varangians in Eastern Europe =====
A water route connecting the 
Baltic Sea with the Black Sea ran across the land occupied by the 
Eastern Slavs and was called the "route from the Varangians to the 
Greeks," that is, from Scandinavia, the land of the Varangians, to 
Byzantium. This route ran from the Gulf of Finland via the Neva 
Biver to Lake Ladoga, thence up the Volkhov Biver to Lake Ilmen and 
from Lake Ilmen to the Lovat River, from which vessels were carried 
by portage to the upper reaches of the Western Dvina. Bands of Varangians, as the inhabitants of Scandinavia were known in Eastern Europe, 
or Norsemen, as they were called by their southern neighbours, used 
this route in the 9th century when they went in quest of plunder. At that 
time the Norsemen terrified all Western Europe with their raids. They 
invaded the lands of the Eastern Slavs, as everywhere else, for predatory trade and plunder. The Varangians were organized in military 
bands under the leadership of their ''konungs'', or princes. They attacked 
the Slavs and other tribes, robbed them of their furs, took prisoners, 
and carried off their booty to be sold in Constantinople, or to be shipped 
down the Volga to the land of the Bulgars and to the Khazar capital 
Itil. The Slavs and their neighbours repeatedly rose against these 
freebooters and drove them off. 

Some of the Varangian princes and their retinues seized the most 
advantageous places on the "route from the Varangians to the Greeks" 
and imposed tribute upon the local Slav population. They very often 
killed or subordinated the local Slavonic princes and ruled in their 
stead. Legend has it that in the middle of the 9th century one such 
adventurer, Rurik, established himself in Novgorod, which was the 
key position to the Dnieper route from the north. His brother Sineus lived at Byelo Ozero (White Lake), across which lay a route from 
the Gulf of Finland to the Volga and the Urals, and another brother, 
Truvor, at Izborsk, a town which commanded the routes to the Baltic 
shore. Two other Varangian chiefs Askold and Dir, took possession 
of the city of Kiev in the land of the Polyane. Kiev was an important 
southern point on the "route from the Varangians to the Greeks."

Another offshoot of Scandinavia seized the principality of Polotsk 
on a different route leading from the Baltic Sea to the Dnieper along 
the Western Dvina. Most of the Varangians who made raids on Slav 
lands returned home with their booty. Some of the Scandinavian 
princes, however, settled with their retinues in the towns of Rūs. 
sometimes entering the service of the local Slav princes to protect 
them from new freebooters coming from Scandinavia. 

The number of Varangians who settled on Slav lands was negligible. The Varangian bands were augmented by local Slav warriors. 
Before long the Varangians were Slavonicized: already in the beginning of the 10th century they used the Slavonic language and worshipped Slavonic gods. The Varangian warriors very quickly merged 
with the Slav nobility and formed with it a single class. The ancient 
state of Rūs grew in its struggle with the Varangians in the north and 
with the nomads who invaded the Black Sea steppes from the east, and 
maintained its independence of Byzantium. 

==== Union of Eastern Slavs around Kiev ====

===== The Kiev State =====
The Dnieper region and the adjacent lands were 
united under the rule of Prince Oleg in the beginning of the 10th century. 
The chroniclers tell us that at first Oleg ruled over the Novgorod Slavs, 
but later went down the Dnieper and conquered the Smolensk Krivichi. 
Proceeding farther down the Dnieper, he slew Askold and Dir, who were 
in Kiev, took possession of the city, and reduced the neighbouring 
Drevlyane. Oleg also subdued the tribes of Severyane and Radimichi, 
who had been under the Khazar yoke. The simultaneous possession of 
Novgorod and Kiev made Oleg the undisputed lord of the Dnieper route. The lesser princes wore forced to submit to him. He became the "Grand Prince of Rūs," with all other princes "under his will." 
The lands of the Dnieper and the Ilmen Slavs were united under the 
rule of the Kiev prince. This union was called Rūs, and its centre 
was Kiev, which is why we call this union of ancient Russian lands 
"Kiev Rūs." 

The greater part of the population subject to the Kiev 
princes were Slavs, but their state also included the Merya, Vesi, 
Chudes and other tribes. The economic ties among all these tribes 
were weak, and the latter were therefore unable to form a stable 
entity. 

During this period the Eastern Slavs still lived in agricultural 
communities — ''vervs'' — and retained various customs that had prevailed 
under the clan system. But the process of disintegration was already 
in progress in the community; individual members accumulated 
wealth; the labour of the poorer tribesmen was exploited. In this way 
the division of society into classes was hastened, private ownership of 
land developed, and feudal relations originated.

===== Campaigns Against Byzantium and the Caspian Countries =====
The Kiev state, which consisted of a number of independent principalities 
loosely held together maintained itself by force of arms. 

The Kiev state played an important role in Eastern Europe. In 860, 
as a reprisal against Byzantine aggression a large fleet of Slav ''odnoderevki'' (small craft hewn out of solid oak trunks) made its way to the Golden 
Horn (the inlet of the Bosporus forming the harbour of Constantinople) 
and threatened the walls of Constantinople. The city was saved only 
because a storm dispersed the Slav beet. The annals state that Oleg 
undertook a successful campaign against Constantinople. In 911 he 
concluded an advantageous peace with Byzantium, which established 
the exact relations between the Rūs and the Greeks. The treaty is 
evidence of the regular relations between Rūs and Byzantium and of 
the great power of the prince of Kiev. 

In 913 or 914 Rūs attacked the Caspian coastline. Russian vessels 
sailed from the Sea of Azov up the Don to the spot where this river 
most closely approaches the Volga, and from there, by portage, their 
boats were carried to the Volga. The Rūs then went down to the Caspian 
Sea and ravaged the Transcaucasian coast (now Azerbaijan), but on 
the way back they themselves were attacked by the Khazars and 
sustained certain losses. 

Oleg was succeeded in the second quarter of the 10th century by 
the Kiev Prince Igor, whom the annals call the son of Rurik, and who 
occupied a similar dominating position in relation to the other princes. 
Igor continued the conquests of Oleg. He subjugated the Slavs living 
on the Southern Bug and imposed tribute upon the Drevlyane who 
revolted against the rule of Kiev. In 941 Igor launched a big sea campaign against Byzantium. The Rūs devastated the precincts of Constantinople, but the Greek fleet kept them out of the harbour and 
forced them back to the Black Sea. Repulsed from Constantinople, the 
Rūs ravaged the northern shore of Asia Minor. The Greek government had to send a large land force to drive the Rūs out of that 
country. The Greek fleet, which was equipped with devices for pouring 
liquid combustibles — "Greek fire" — over enemy vessels, inflicted a 
telling defeat on Igor’s sea force. The Greeks succeeded in setting 
fire to the Russian vessels. To save themselves from the "Greek fire" 
many of the Rūs plunged into the water and were drowned. Never
theless, what remained of the Slavonic fleet made its way past the 
enemy vessels and returned to its native land. 

To avoid a repetition of raids by the Rūs the Greeks concluded a 
new treaty with Igor in 945. In this treaty the trade conditions between 
Rūs and Constantinople were set forth in detail, and a military alliance 
against their common enemies was established. 

In 943 Rūs once more undertook a big expedition against the settlements along the Caspian seacoast. Rūs warriors sailed up the Kura 
River and captured the city of Berdaa. From there the Rūs made 
attacks on the outlying lands. The unfavourable climatic conditions 
told on the Rūs, of whom disease and mortality took heavy toll. Their 
thinned ranks were besieged in a fortress by Arab troops; however, 
the remnants, under cover of night, succeeded in making their way to 
their vessels and to return to Rūs with their plunder. 

===== Polyudye =====
One of the reasons that prompted the Kiev princes 
to undertake campaigns and to wage war was the collection of 
tribute from the conquered peoples. 

Feudal relations were as yet poorly developed in the Kiev state in 
the 10th century. Big land tenure was in the process of formation. 
The princes therefore exploited the population chiefly by collecting 
tribute from the people. The princes had bodies of military retainers — 
retinues — with whose help they undertook their campaigns and kept 
the conquered peoples in subjection. They shared the tribute they 
extorted with their retinue, thus paying the latter for their services. 
Each year, at the beginning of winter, the prince and his retinue of 
warriors would leave their city ''na polyudye'', that is, on an expedition "among the people" — to levy tribute. The prince would make 
the round of his subject domains and collect furs, honey, bees-wax, 
etc., from the inhabitants. In the spring the booty together with 
prisoners captured in war would be loaded on ships and sent down 
the Dnieper to the Black Sea. At the Dnieper rapids the merchandise and vessels would be transferred by portage. Here the travellers 
would often be beset by the Pechenegs, lying in wait to rob them of their 
wares. Another dangerous spot was near the Island of Khortitsa (where 
Dnieproges, the Dnieper Power Station, now stands). The high bluffs here cramped the narrow current of the Dnieper, and a fleet of ships was always in danger of attack by the nomads. 

After leaving the mouth of the Dnieper and sailing into tho Black 
Sea, the voyagers offered thanksgiving sacrifices at a "sacred" oak on a 
little islet. Then they followed the western shore of the Black Sea. 
The final destination was Constantinople, or Tsargrad (the tsar’s 
city) as the Slavs called it. There they sold the furs, beeswax and slaves, 
and in exchange acquired costly fabrics, wines, fruit and other luxuries. 

Tribute was wrung from the subject tribes by violent and oppressive 
means, with the result that the Drevlyane, headed by their local Prince 
Mal, rebelled during the rule of Igor. Igor, the chronicler says, entrusted the levying of tribute from certain Slav tribes to one of his more 
influential retainers named Sveneld, thus arousing dissatisfaction 
among his guard. The latter persistently urged Igor to go to the land of 
the Drevlyane himself to collect tribute, saying: "Svenold's warriors 
have fitted themselves out with arms, clothes and horses, while we are 
naked. Let us go, Prince, and collect the tribute, and thou wilt gain and 
we will." After collecting tribute from the land of the Drevlyane, Igor 
dismissed most of his military retinue and decided to make another 
round himself. "I will return and go about some more." When the 
Drevlyane heard that the prince was preparing to come back for more 
tribute, they said: "If the wolf gets into the habit of visiting a herd 
he will devour it all unless he is killed." They slew Igor’s attendants, 
then captured and killed Igor himself (945). 

Igor’s widow, Olga (945-957), who ruled instead of her son Svyatoslav, who was in his minority, mercilessly crushed the mutiny. 
Iskorosten, the principal city of the Drevlyane, was taken and burned; 
many of the inhabitants were either slain or reduced to slavery; the 
rest had to pay a heavy tribute. Fearing further uprisings, Olga fixed 
the exact amount of tribute to be paid in the future. However, not content merely with tribute she began seizing portions of the land that 
still belonged to the communities. This testifies to the still greater 
exploitation of the conquered lands by the princes and their retainers. 

===== The Conquests of Svyatoslav =====
Svyatoslav (957-972), the son of 
Igor and Olga, was a Slav by birth, name and appearance. He wore a 
simple white shirt, an earring in one of his ears, and shaved his head, 
leaving only a long forelock. A brave leader of a martial retinue, he 
spent his whole life on campaigns, "walking lightly, like a panther"; he 
never took any baggage carts on his marches, slept on the ground with 
his saddle as pillow, and ate half-cooked horseflesh. Svyatoslav never 
attacked an enemy by underhand, treacherous means. When setting out 
on a campaign he sent messengers ahead to say: "I want to march 
against you." 

The adjacent lands of the Dnieper and Lake Ilmen were already 
part of the Kiev state. Svyatoslav directed his arms first against the Slavonic tribes living east of the Dnieper, conquered the Vyatichi on the Oka, and then attacked the other peoples. In the sixties of 
the 10th century he defeated the Volga states of the Bulgars and the 
Khazars, then marched to the Northern Caucasus, where he defeated 
the Kasogi (Circassians) and Yasi (the Ossetians). In 907 Svyatoslav 
launched a campaign against Bulgaria on the Danube, a land inhabited by Slavs who had assumed the name of the Bulgars, their conquerors. The Bulgars were constantly attacking their neighbour, 
the Greek empire, inflicting serious defeats on the Greeks. Not equal 
to coping with Bulgar incursions the Greeks appealed to Svyatoslav 
for aid. He not only won a complete victory over the Bulgars, but 
even planned to establish himself permanently in Pereyaslavets on 
the Danube, the capital of Bulgaria. "Here," he said, "is the centre 
of my land; here flows everything that is good — gold, rich fabrics, 
wine and fruit from the Greeks; silver and horses from Czechia and 
Hungary; furs, bees-wax, honey and slaves from Rūs." 

The Greek government, fearing such a dangerous neighbour, 
bribed the Pechenegs to attack Kiev. News of the siege of Kiev by 
the Pechenegs forced Svyatoslav to hasten back to the Dnieper region. 
But he did not relinquish the idea of conquering Bulgaria. After 
driving the Pechenegs back to the steppes, he returned and recaptured Pereyaslavets. Thereupon the new Byzantine Emperor, John 
Tzimisces, advanced against him with a big army. Faced by a superior enemy, Svyatoslav nevertheless did not abandon the struggle. 
He is attributed by the chronicles to have made the following address 
to his warriors: "Let us not shame the Russian soil, but lay down our 
lives, for the dead know no shame, but if we flee, then shall we be 
shamed." 

The Greek troops took Pereyaslavets, but not until after a hard 
struggle. The Rūs garrison which had been left in the city by Svyatoslav barricaded itself in the royal palace of the Bulgars and defended 
itself even after the city fell to the enemy. Tzimisces ordered the 
palace to be set on fire; only then did the Rūs leave the city for the 
field, where they fought their last battle. "They fought vigorously," 
writes a Greek historian; "they did not take to flight, and our men 
put them all to the sword." Svyatoslav shut himself up in the town 
of Dorostol on the Danube. He was besieged on land by Tzimisces’ 
army, while on the Danube his retreat was blocked by the Greek 
fleet with its fire-throwers. In spite of this, Svyatoslav rejected all 
peace offers. His army, which was very small, defended itself heroically and made daring sallies. During the night the Rūs burned 
their dead, killed the prisoners in their honour, and offered sacrifices to the gods. The besieged were weakened by hunger. They made 
a last desperate attempt to break their way through. The Greek army 
wavered, and the emperor had to go into battle himself, at the head of his bodyguard — the "immortals." The sortie was repulsed; many of the Rūs were wounded, and killed, and Svyatoslav himself was 
wounded. Further resistance was impossible. In 971 Svyatoslav concluded a peace treaty by which he surrendered Bulgaria. But the 
Greek government still feared Svyatoslav and informed the Pechenegs of his return to his native land. They ambushed Svyatoslav at 
the Dnieper rapids, where they killed him (972). The Pecheneg prince 
made a drinking cup of the skull of the murdered Svyatoslav.

==== Introduction of Christianity into Kiev Rūs ====

===== Vladimir Svyatoslavich (980-1015) =====
Svyatoslav, during his 
absence at the wars, had left the government of his domains in the 
hands of his three sons. The land of the Polyane, including Kiev, 
went to his oldest son Yaropolk; the land of the Drevlyane — to Oleg, 
and Novgorod to Vladimir. Soon after the death of their father the 
brothers quarrelled. Oleg and Yaropolk fell in battle, and Vladimir 
again united all the lands of the Eastern Slavs under his rule. Subsequently he extended his possessions at the expense of his neighbours. 
Vladimir annexed the land of Galich (Halicz) to the Kiev state, and 
marched against the Poles, who wanted to take possession of it. Vladimir also advanced against Lithuania. But his chief concern was to 
defend his southern frontiers against the raids of the Pechenegs. 
During his rule the steppe borders were fortified with ramparts and 
palisades, forts were erected and warlike people were settled on the 
frontier. 

===== Adoption of Christianity =====
During Vladimir’s reign Kiev Rūs 
adopted the Greek Orthodox religion, as Greek Christendom is called 
in distinction to that of Western Europe, called Catholicism. The 
Eastern Slavs became acquainted with Christian culture through 
their regular trade and political intercourse with Byzantium and 
their frequent trips to Constantinople. The chief reason for the adoption of Christianity was the fact that the class of feudal lords, which 
sprang up in the Dnieper region, needed a religion which would support its class interests. Furthermore, the old heathen religion was 
in the hands of sorcerer-priests, representatives of the old tribal nobility, who were hostile to the princes. The first to embrace Christianity were the representatives of the upper class, including their 
retainers. Even under Igor there already were many Christians in 
the prince's military retinue. Igor's widow, Olga, had also adopted 
Christianity. At the end of the year 987 a revolt broke out in the 
Byzantine empire. At the same time the Danube Bulgars threatened 
Byzantium from the north. The Byzantine government called upon 
the Kiev prince for help. An alliance was formed (988) which was to 
be sealed by the baptism of Vladimir and the entire Russian people, 
and by the marriage of the Kiev prince to the Greek Princess Anna 
(two emperors ruled Byzantium at that time; Princess Anna was their 
sister). With the help of a contingent of Russian troops the revolt 
in Byzantium was suppressed. Byzantium, however, was in no hurry 
to fulfil the terms of the agreement concerning the marriage of Vladimir and princess Anna. Vladimir besieged and took the city of Khersones (Korsun) in the Crimea, which belonged to Byzantium, and 
forced Byzantium to fulfil its part of the treaty. Vladimir was baptized according to the rites of the Greek church and married Princess Anna. 

On his return from Khersones, Vladimir ordered the whole 
population of Kiev to be driven to the river, in which they were 
baptized by Greek priests. The images of the gods were burnt, and 
an idol of Peroun was thrown into the Dnieper. The population of 
other cities was baptized in the same way. Christianity, however, 
did not take immediate root. Heathen beliefs continued to prevail 
for a very long time, especially, among the rural population. 

The adoption of Christianity was an important event in the life 
of Kiev Rūs. In comparison with heathenism, Christianity was 
a great advance on the path of progress. It stimulated the further 
development and strengthening of feudal relations in Kiev 
Rūs, since the Greek clergy employed peasant serfs on their church 
lands, and not slaves. The church advocated the liberation of the 
slaves.

Christianity was instrumental in spreading the higher Byzantine culture among the Eastern Slavs. The establishment of a single 
religion hastened the unification of all Slavonic tribes and strengthened the power of the princes. 

The introduction of Christianity also brought about closer ties 
with Byzantium and the states of Western Europe. Vladimir maintained friendly relations with Czechia, Poland and Hungary. He became related to the Greek imperial house through his marriage with 
Anna. The cultural influence of the more enlightened Christian countries also increased. Kiev, in the manner of Byzantium, erected stone 
buildings ornamented with paintings and mosaic work. The heathen 
shrines gave way to a church built by Greek craftsmen, and, beside 
it, a palace was erected for Vladimir. 

Education became more widespread. About a hundred years before the conversion of Rūs, the missionaries Cyril and Methodius, 
upon instructions from the Greek government, invented a Slavonic 
alphabet and translated the Greek scriptural books into the Slavonic 
(Bulgarian) dialect to facilitate the preaching of Christianity among 
the Western and Southern Slavs. Thanks to this, Kiev Rūs, after 
its conversion, received books in the Slavonic language. Vladimir 
ordered the children of the nobility to be taken from 
their parents and forcibly 
taught to read and write. 

The memory of Vladimir has been preserved in 
folk songs or ''byliny''. In these 
songs the people embodied 
their ideal of love for their 
native land in the persons 
of their valorous knights — Prince Vladimir’s warriors, 
the peasant Ilya of Murom, 
Dobrynya Nikitich, Alyosha 
Popovich, and others who defended their Russian land against the dwellers of the steppes. These 
folk songs present the period of Kiev Rūs as a brilliant epoch in 
Russian history.

===== Yaroslav Mudry (the Wise) =====
Vladimir died in 1015 and immediately after his death a fierce struggle broke out among his sons. 
One of them, Svyatopolk, seized the power in Kiev and slew his 
brothers, Boris, Gleb and Svyatoslav. Another son, Yaroslav Vladimirovich, who had been entrusted with the government of Novgorod during his father’s lifetime, attacked Svyatopolk. With the help 
of the people of Novgorod, he routed Svyatopolk, who fled to Poland 
to his father-in-law, Prince Boleslaus the Brave. This internecine 
warfare among the princes exposed the Russian frontiers to foreign 
aggressors. Boleslaus of Poland invaded Rūs, defeated Yaroslav on 
the Western Bug, entered Kiev and placed Svyatopolk on the throne. 
The indignation of the Russians was aroused against the Poles who 
engaged in plundering and banditry. When the latter dispersed 
through the towns and villages to take up their winter quarters, the 
population slew them. Boleslaus fled to Poland with the remnants 
of his army. Without the support of the Polish king, Svyatopolk 
suffered a decisive defeat at the hands of Yaroslav and the Novgorodians, and was killed while trying to make his escape. Yaroslav 
united Kiev and Novgorod under his rule (1019). However, his 
brother Mstislav Vladimirovich, ruler of the Tmutarakan principality 
on the Taman Peninsula, near the Caucasus, launched a campaign 
against him. Mstislav conquered Seversk Land and the city of Chernigov from Yaroslav. The Dnieper became the boundary between the 
possessions of these two brothers. After Mstislav’s death (1036) Yaroslav re-annexed the land of Seversk to the Kiev state. 

The reign of Yaroslav (1019-1054) was marked by the ultimate 
triumph of Christianity in Kiev Rūs. It was during his rule that the church, administration was organized, and a metropolitan appointed by the patriarch of Constantinople was placed at the head of 
the church of Kiev. It was also under Yaroslav that the Pechersk 
Monastery near Kiev came into existence. This monastery played 
a great part in the spread of learning among the ruling classes of 
Kiev Rūs. 

The Kiev state in Yaroslav’s reign occupied a leading position 
among the states of Europe in point of power and the high level of 
its culture. Evidence of the close political ties that existed between 
Kiev Rūs and the states of Western Europe is furnished by the matrimonial alliances formed by Yaroslav’s family with foreign courts: 
his sister was married to the Polish prince, one of his daughters to 
the French king, another to the Norwegian, and a third to the Hungarian. Yaroslav frequently interfered in the affairs of Poland. Taking 
advantage of the turmoil that reigned in Poland after the death of Boleslaus, Yaroslav once more recovered the towns which had been lost 
after Vladimir’s death in Galich Rūs. Later Yaroslav supported 
his brother-in-law, the Polish prince, by sending troops to his aid. 
The last campaign against Constantinople (1043), which ended in 
failure, was undertaken during Yaroslav’s rule under the leadership of 
his son Vladimir. 
In the Baltic region, which was already becoming the object of attacks by Germans, Yaroslav built the city of Yuriev (Tartu in 
Esthonian) and extended his power over the Baltic peoples. He built 
a city on the Volga which he named Yaroslavl. In the south Yaroslav 
was compelled to wage a hard struggle against the Pechenegs. He 
continued to fortify the frontier belt by building towns. 

During Yaroslav’s reign, the earliest code of laws was compiled 
under the name of Yaroslav’s ''Pravda'', which revealed influences of 
Christian Byzantine legislation. Yaroslav’s ''Pravda'' reflected the 
tenacity of the old clan customs; for instance, it sanctioned the blood 
feud, which was confined to the members of the family, and was not 
applicable to the clan. "If one man shall kill another," ''Pravda'' said, 
"the brother shall avenge a brother, the son a father, the father a son, 
the nephew on the brother’s or on the sister’s side; if there be none to 
take revenge, then forty ''grivnas'' (a ''grivna'' was a bar of silver weighing 
approximately 200 grams) shall be paid for the murdered person." 
However, this obligation to seek revenge was imposed only on the 
next of kin and not on the entire clan, for by that time the clan had 
already fallen apart. During the reign of Yaroslav’s sons the blood 
feud was abolished altogether. 

Yaroslav’s ''Pravda'' was later supplemented and revised during the 
reign of his sons and grandsons. 

===== The Culture of Kiev Rūs =====
The cultural development of Kiev 
Rūs in the 11th century was greatly influenced by Byzantium which 
was the most civilized country in Europe at the time. The Russians, however, did not simply borrow an alien culture; they moulded it to the form of their own national art as well as that of Western Europe 
and Transcaucasia. An ancient Russian, native culture was created 
on Kiev soil which subsequently formed the basis of the national 
cultures of the Russian, Ukrainian and Byelorussian peoples. 

A considerable number of books translated from the Greek in 
Bulgaria on the Danube made their appearance in Kiev Rūs together 
with the new religion. The prince and rich people had transcripts of 
these books made for themselves. Other books were translated anew 
into the Russian language. 

Besides theological books there were secular writings, such as the 
Greek chronicles. Translated literature served as the model for original 
Russian works. The first attempts to compile a history of Rūs date back to the time of Yaroslav. After his death 
these historical notes were 
elaborated in the Pechersk 
Monastery in the form of 
a voluminous work which 
related "whence came the 
Russian land." The underlying idea of this work 
was that of a united Russia and a united ancient 
Russian people. The volume ''Nachalnaya Letopis'' 
(Initial Annals) as it 
was commonly called, 
was composed of stories, 
biographies of the princes, 
annual recordings of 
events made in various 
cities, passages from Greek 
chronicles, etc. 

The Initial Annals have come down to us under the name, ''Chronicle of Ancient Years'', in the revised versions dated 1116 and 1118. 
The Initial Annals are the source of our information on the ancient 
history of the Dnieper region and its adjacent lands. They are evidence of a high degree of learning in the monasteries of Kiev Rūs 
and of the versatility and wealth of the translated and original literature of the times. 

Byzantine influence made itself felt in art as well. During Yaroslav’s reign the St. Sophia Cathedral was built in Kiev by Greek 
architects; however, the usual type of Byzantine architecture was 
modified to correspond to Russian tastes and demands. The St. 
Sophia Cathedral is a masterpiece of 11th century Russian art. The 
interior of the cathedral contains remarkable mosaics and frescos. 
The so-called "Golden Gate" was also built during Yaroslav's rule. 
Foreigners were amazed at the splendour of Kiev and called it "the 
rival of Constantinople." Other cities, especially Novgorod, built similar magnificent structures. Vladimir, son of Yaroslav, built the 
superb St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod after the Kiev model.

=== Disintegration of the Kiev State ===

==== Establishment of Feudalism in the Kiev State ====

===== Development of Feudal Relations in Kiev Rūs =====
Agriculture was the basic economy in Kiev Rūs. By the 11th century it had made 
considerable progress and spread over a vast territory. 

Among the husbandmen (the smerds) living in communities some 
wealthy people came to the fore who started to seize the land and 
cultivate it with the labour of the poor people dependent upon them and 
slaves. In this way there arose in the community a number of rich 
landowners possessing large demesnes. It also became more profitable 
for the princes and their retinues to engage in farming on a large scale 
than to confine themselves to the collection of tribute from the population. They therefore appropriated the community lands from the 
smerds and concentrated in their hands large landed estates consisting of tilths, forests rich in wild bees, and hunting grounds. With 
the help of the princes and the boyars (as the wealthy landowners 
came to be called), the monasteries also appropriated land to themselves. Thus the landed property of the princes, boyars and churches 
was considerably expanded at the expense of the community land of 
the husbandmen. 

Around the large towns there sprang up villages belonging to the 
princes, boyars and monasteries. Slave labour was not very productive. 
It was more advantageous for the landowner to have semi-free 
peasants on his land, people who had their own farms but who at 
the same time were compelled to work for the landowner. And so 
the landowners made bondsmen of the free husbandmen and exploited them. 

The mass of the husbandmen still lived in communities in the 
11th century, their dependence on the princes being limited to the 
payment of tribute. By the end of the 11th century there already was 
a considerable group of husbandmen who were dependent upon the 
rich landowners. Such dependent husbandmen were, for instance, 
the ''zakupy'', A ''zakup'' received a ''kupa'', or money loan from his master 
and a small plot of land which was paid for by services (the corvée). 
The inventory — horse, plough and barrow — belonged to the master. 
The latter had the right to inflict corporal punishment upon his ''zakup'', 
who could not quit without settling his debt. If he ran away and was 
caught, he became a slave. The ''zakup'' was thus in complete bondage 
to the landowner. 
"The landowners kept the smerds in bondage even at the time of ''Russkaya Pravda''," Lenin said.<ref>Lenin, ''Selected Works'', Eng. ed., Moscow-Leningrad, 1934, Vol. I, p. 256.</ref> In the 11th century, according 
to Lenin, "the smerds (as ''Russkaya Pravda'' called the peasants) went 
into bondage and 'signed up’ for the landlords."<ref>Lenin, ''Collected Works'', Russ. ed., Moscow, 1935, Vol. XI, p. 98.</ref> 

The husbandmen resisted the attempts to deprive them of their 
land and to enslave them; they ploughed up the boundary lines separating the lands that were alienated by the feudal lords, destroyed all 
boundary marks, killed the princes’ and boyars’ bailiffs, and set 
fire to the buildings on their masters’ estates. Spontaneous uprisings 
against the feudal lords broke out frequently in the villages. 

Relations characteristic of the feudal system came into existence 
in Kiev Rūs: the large landowner subordinated and exploited the 
small producer and forced the latter to work for him. 

Under the feudal system the peasants and craftsmen were the 
owners of the instruments and means of production and conducted 
their private economy by their own labour. The land, however, which 
was then the chief means of production, belonged to the feudal lords. 
This enabled the latter by means of force to enthrall the petty producer, the peasant, and convert him into a semi-free man.

===== ''Russkaya Pravda'' =====
During the reign of Yaroslav’s sons and 
grandsons, feudal customs found reflection in a code of ducal regulations, known xmder the name of ''Russkaya Pravda'', the basis of which 
was Yaroslav's ''Pravda''. The aim of ''Russkaya Pravda'' was to protect 
the property of the landowners, the feudal lords. It contained a number 
of clauses which listed the fines imposed for violation of boundary 
lines, for stealing cattle, etc. The rights of a lord over his ''zakup'' and 
slave were precisely defined. ''Russkaya Pravda'' abolished the clan 
feud, which it substituted by the ''vira'' (blood money), that is, recompence paid for a murdered man; this was set at forty ''grivnas''. Recompense for the murder of a boyar was double the amount, eighty ''grivnas''. 
A similar ''vira'' was paid for the murder of persons who occupied important posts on the estate of the prince, the prince's equerry, major-domo, 
etc. But no ''vira'' was paid for slaves. Their master was merely compensated for their cost which was five ''grivnas''. A similar sum was paid 
for husbandmen working on a prince’s or boyar’s estate. Thus the 
tenant working on the land of a feudal lord was placed in the same 
category as the slave. In the case of crimes ''Russkaya Pravda'' fixed fines 
payable to the prince and damages to the plaintiff. For instance, according to ''Russkaya Pravda'', "if a man be struck with the sword but not 
killed, the fine is three ''grivnas'', and one ''grivna'' to the person struck and 
the cost of treatment, if a wound is inflicted," or "if a tooth is knocked 
out and blood appears in the mouth, then the fine is twelve ''grivnas'' 
and a ''grivna'' for the tooth"; "if someone hews down a tree in which wild bees swarm, the fine is three ''grivnas'' and half a ''grivna'' for the 
tree." The severest punishment was imposed for setting fire to a farm
stead or threshing floor, taking the form of banishment and confiscation of the malefactor’s property. The severity of this punishment 
was due to the lords’ fear of vengeance on the part of their exploited 
tenants. 

===== Trade and Crafts =====
A natural economy prevailed in Kiev Rūs, 
that is, each farm was practically self-sufficient. However, in the 
11th century the cities were producing commodities for the local 
market. Certain articles of prime necessity, such as clothing and 
footwear, were obtained at the ''torg'' — marts. The feudal lords 
wanted articles of luxury such as jewelry, similar to those imported 
from Byzantium and the East. The Kiev craftsmen imitated the 
Greek and Eastern models and created an art of their own, the high 
standard of which can be judged from objects discovered amid the 
hidden treasures of Kiev and other cities. The smithy’s craft stood 
particularly high; Russian armourers made superior swords and other 
weapons. A new group sprang up in the cities — the merchants, who 
bought local goods and resold them in other cities in their own country and abroad; in exchange they imported foreign goods which they 
sold in their homeland. 

The original medium of exchange was animal skins in the forest 
belt and cattle in the steppe zone. That is why in ancient times money 
was called ''skot'' — cattle, or ''kuny'' — marten skins. Rūs had no coinage 
of its own at first, and only Arabian, Greek and Western European 
coins were current. Beginning with the 11th century a small quantity 
of coins was minted in Kiev Rūs in imitation of the Greek coins, with 
the heads of the princes stamped on them. 

Money lending was prevalent in the cities, where the lower sections, especially the artisans, suffered from it acutely. Though the 
craftsmen owned their own instruments of production, they became 
dependent upon the moneylender and merchant. The increasing 
division of labour intensified the process of class stratification in 
the towns. Exploited by the rich merchants and moneylenders, the city poor rose against their oppressors, but were unable to shake off the grievous yoke of dependence. 

===== Beginning of the Disintegration of the Kiev State =====
Despite its show of splendour, the Kiev state was an agglomeration of loosely 
connected, diverse lands that had been subjugated by the Kiev princes. 
As big landownership developed in various regions, the local land
owners, who came into possession of large estates with numerous 
dependent peasants, grew more powerful and maintained their own 
retinues of warriors. The most powerful local feudal lords strove 
to free themselves of the suzerainty of the Kiev princes, and supported their own princes who aspired to independence from Kiev. 
Thus the integrity of Kiev Rūs began to crumble and give way to 
feudal disunity. 

Shortly after the death of Yaroslav (1054) this process of disintegration went on apace and the Kiev state was superseded by a 
number of independent principalities, respectively ruled by Yaroslav’s sons. The oldest, Izyaslav, inherited Kiev and Novgorod, that 
is, the two most important points on the Dnieper route; Svyatoslav 
received Chernigov Land, and Vsevolod — Pereyaslav and Rostov-Suzdal. The other lands went to the younger members of the prince’s 
family. At first the three elder brothers, Izyaslav, Svyatoslav and 
Vsevolod, acted in harmony, maintaining order in the land and defending it against enemies by their joint efforts. Sometimes the brothers 
met to confer on matters of common interest. Thus, at a conference 
called shortly after a revolt of the craftsmen and husbandmen in 
Kiev in 1068 they supplemented and revised the ''Pravda'' of their 
father Yaroslav. 

===== Feudal Wars and the Struggle Against the Polovtsi =====
Yaroslav’s sons had to defend the Russian domains against the invasions 
of a nomad Turkic race from Asia, called the Polovtsi. In the middle 
of the 11th century the Polovtsi invaded and occupied the Black 
Sea steppes, driving some of the Pechenegs westward, to the Danube, 
and intermingling with the others. The Polovtsi were herdsmen. They 
were divided into several hordes or tribes, ruled by khans (princes). 
These nomads made devastating descents on Russian lands, seized 
captives, drove off the cattle, and disappeared back into the steppe. 
Their attacks were extremely fierce and sudden. A Greek writer says 
of them: "The Polovtsi appear and disappear in the twinkling of an 
eye. Their raid over, and arms full of spoil, they precipitately seize 
the reins, urge their horses on with their feet and whip, and rush off 
like a whirlwind, as though desiring to overtake a bird in flight. 
They are gone before you have seen them." 

In 1068 Izyaslav and his brothers, Svyatoslav and Vsevolod 
marched against the Polovtsi, but suffered a serious defeat and 
fled from the field of battle. Izyaslav went to Kiev. The peasants, who had thronged to the city from the villages pillaged by the Polovtsi, and the Kiev populace demanded that Izyaslav give them 
weapons and horses and lead them again into battle against the enemy. 
But Izyaslav refused, fearing lest the weapons be turned against him. 
The crowd then broke into and pillaged the prince’s household, 
released the captive Polotsk Prince Vseslav from his prison, and 
proclaimed him the prince of Kiev. Izyaslav fled to Poland to seek 
the aid of Prince Boleslaus the Bold. The Polish feudal lords found 
this an opportune moment to intervene in the affairs of Kiev Rūs. 
Izyaslav returned with a Polish army. Vseslav betrayed the Kiev 
people and secretly fled to Polotsk during the night. With the help 
of the Polish feudal lords Izyaslav cruelly avenged himself upon the 
rebellious Kiev people: seventy were executed and many were blinded and punished in other ways. The Poles quartered themselves 
in the cities of the Kiev principality, where the populace, infuriated 
by their outrages, massacred them. 

In spite of the danger from the Polovtsi, the league of Yaroslav's 
sons did not last very long. In 1073 Svyatoslav and Vsevolod drove 
Izyaslav out of Kiev. Svyatoslav occupied the Kiev throne. Izyaslav 
sought help from the German emperor and the Pope and finally, 
with the help of the Poles, recovered the throne, but shortly after 
this was killed in a war against his nephews. 

The feudal wars continued under Yaroslav’s grandsons. In 1097 
the most influential princes gathered at a joint council at Lyubech. 
"Why do we ruin the Land of Rūs," the princes exclaimed at this 
meeting; "plotting treason against each other while the Polovtsi 
are harassing our land and are glad that we are fighting among our
selves! Let us henceforth live in harmony!" To put an end to the 
feudal internecine warfare, those who attended the council ordained 
the division of Kiev Rūs among themselves according to the principle of feudal heritage: "Let each possess his own patrimony!" — 
that is, the principality which his father had possessed. Kiev remained 
in the hands of Svyatopolk, the son of Izyaslav, the oldest of the 
Yaroslavs. The Pereyaslav principality, which had belonged to 
Vsevolod, went to his son Vladimir, known under the name of Monomachus, the "autocrat" (after the title of his grandfather, the Byzantine Emperor Constantine Monomachus). The participants of 
the conclave undertook to act jointly against those who violated 
the agreement. But they had no sooner departed to their respective 
homes when David Igorevich, the prince of Vladimir-Volhynsk, 
incited Svyatopolk Izyaslavich to seize one of the members of the 
conclave, the enterprising and bold Vasilko. Svyatopolk lured Vasilko to Kiev, seized him and turned him over to David. The latter 
ordered Vasilko to be blinded and imprisoned, and then seized his 
cities. The other princes, led by Vladimir Monomachus, came out 
in defence of Vasilko. He was liberated, and avenged himself for being blinded by mercilessly devastating David’s lands. At another 
convocation held in 1100 in the city of Vitichev, the princes punished 
David by depriving him of Vladimir-Volhynsk. "We do not wish 
to give thee the Vladimir throne," they bade him be told, "because 
thou hast flung the knife among us, which has never been in the 
Land of Rūs." 

The wars among the princes enabled the Polovtsi to plunder 
the Russian lands with impunity. Sometimes the princes themselves 
sought the aid of the Polovtsi against their enemies. In order 
to fight the Polovtsi it was necessary to unite. In the spring of 1103 
Svyatopolk Izyaslavich and Vladimir Monomachus met near Kiev, 
at Lake Dolobskoye, where they discussed the question of a joint 
campaign against the Polovtsi. Svyatopolk and his warriors were 
reluctant to agree to this undertaking, demurring that a spring 
campaign would have a bad effect upon the ploughing as they would 
have to take the horses from the peasants for this purpose. "I am 
astonished, warriors," Vladimir argued, "that you are sorry for the 
horse that is used in ploughing but you do not think that when the 
husbandman begins to plough, the Polovtsi will come, slay him 
with their arrows, and take away his horse, then they will come 
into the village and carry off his wife and children and all his property. You are sorry for the man’s horse, but you are not sorry for the man himself!" Vladimir's arguments convinced the vacillators. The expedition against the Polovtsi, in which almost all the Russian 
princes took part, was a signal success. The Polovtsi were routed, 
and the victors returned home with rich booty in cattle, horses, 
camels and captives. Another expedition undertaken in 1111 was 
even more successful; the Russian princes then penetrated deep 
into the land of the Polovtsi. 

The long struggle which Kiev Rūs was compelled to wage against 
the peoples of the steppes has been commemorated in folk legends, 
which tell of the heroes who defended Russian soil against the Tatars 
(the name Tatar implies all the steppe people— the Polovtsi, Pechenegs, and others). These tales relate how Ilya of Murom, Dobrynya 
Nikitich, Alyosha Popovich and other heroes stood at the "knights' outpost" and guarded the land of Rūs.

===== Vladimir Monomachus (1113-1125) =====
A violent uprising broke 
out in Kiev in 1113, immediately after the death of Prince Svyatopolk Izyaslavich. Driven to despair by the tyranny of the prince’s 
retainers and the exploitation of the rich usurers, the city poor revolted and wrecked their houses. The rebellion threatened to spread 
to the countryside. The rich feudal lords — the boyars, the family 
of the deceased prince and the monasteries — were in danger. The 
wealthy burghers of Kiev, terrified by the menace, sent for Vladimir 
Monomachus to rule over them: "Come, Prince, to Kiev; if thou 
comest not, then know that much evil will be done — they will go 
against the boyars and the monasteries." 

The arrival of Vladimir with his retinue checked the rebellion. 
Vladimir appreciated the necessity of making concessions and passed 
a law which slightly limited the amount of interest to be paid on 
loans. The position of the ''zakupy'' was also somewhat alleviated. 
But these concessions, prompted as they were by the fear of new 
outbreaks, in no way changed the general situation. 

After taking Kiev, Vladimir Monomachus endeavoured to arrest 
the disintegration of the Kiev state, which was already in progress. 
He forced the other princes into submission and dealt harshly with 
the recalcitrant, dispossessing them of their cities. All the princes 
were "under his will" (his vassals), and had to appear before him 
at his first summons. 

This powerful Kiev prince played an important role in the affairs 
of Europe. Vladimir was related to the Greek imperial house, his 
mother being the daughter of Emperor Constantine Monomachus, 
and a granddaughter of Vladimir’s was married to one of the 
Greek princes. Vladimir interfered in the civil strife in Byzantium, and his troops went as far as the Danube, where they 
established the claim of Rūs to the ancient Russian lands of 
Ismail. Vladimir Monomachus’ sister was married to the German emperor; Vladimir himself was married to the daughter of the English king. 

Vladimir Monomachus was noted for his daring and bravery. 
"I never fled to save my life," he wrote of himself, "and always 
looked danger boldly in the face." "Children," he admonished his 
sons, "fear neither an army nor the beast; yours is a manly task." 
He spent all his life in campaigns and dangerous marches. "I gave 
myself no rest either by day or night, in cold or heat." He was fond 
of the hunt and frequently risked his life: twice the aurochs (wild 
bull) tossed him on its horns, a deer gored him, an elk trampled 
over him, a wild boar tore his sword from his side, a bear rent his 
clothing, and a "ferocious animal" threw both him and his horse. 

Their tempestuous mode of life did not hamper the development 
of the princes intellectual pursuits. Vladimir’s father, Vsevolod, 
was an educated man, who knew five foreign languages. Vladimir 
himself set great store on learning. "Forget not the good that you 
know, and what you do not know, learn," he wrote his sons. He read 
a great deal, and always carried books about with him on his 
marches. He himself wrote an interesting book, "Instructions to Children," in which he set forth what in his opinion was the character 
of an ideal prince, illustrating it copiously from his own life. 

===== The Significance of the Kiev State in the History of the U.S.S.R. =====
The Kiev state was a stage in the history of both the Eastern Slavonic world, and of the non-Slavonic peoples who subsequently 
became independent states. Within the womb of the Kiev state 
a rich and vivid culture was formed, which was destined to become 
the fountainhead of civilization for a number of Slavonic independencies in Eastern Europe and to exert a great influence on the neighbouring peoples. 

However, the Kiev state was not a stable, political entity. Close 
economic ties did not yet exist among its separate parts — a circumstance which precluded the possibility of a strong political organization. Agriculture and the crafts spread throughout the various 
regions of the Kiev state, big landownership developed, and the 
economic significance of the cities was enhanced. These regions 
formed their own separate political centres. The falling apart of 
the Kiev state became inevitable.

== Feudal Disunity in Eastern Europe and Central Asia ==

=== Feudal Principalities in the 12th and 13th Centuries ===

==== Intensification of Feudal Disunity ====

===== The State System of Russian Principalities =====
Vladimir Monomachus was unable to arrest the process of disintegration in the Kiev 
state. The development of feudal relations in the different regions 
led to the formation of independent principalities which no longer 
professed allegiance to Kiev. 

In the 12th century the entire land of Rūs split up into a number 
of independent principalities, the most important of which were those 
of Kiev, Chernigov, Galich, Smolensk, Polotsk, Turov-Pinsk, Rostov-Suzdal, Ryazan, Novgorod and Vladimir-Volhynsk. Each of these 
principalities was ruled by an offshoot of the vast genealogical tree 
of Vladimir Svyatoslavich. Kiev passed from hand to hand. It was 
the prey of the strongest, for, as one of the princes said, "it is not 
the place that fits the head, but the head that fits the place." The 
Kiev prince enjoyed a traditional authority over all the other princes. being considered as the grand prince. It was his business to "think and ponder" for all the land of Rūs. But after Vladimir Monomachus, 
the princes no longer obeyed the Kiev prince and became completely 
independent. Kiev Rūs thus broke up into numerous small principalities independent of one another. 

The prince was sovereign and master in his own little state. He 
managed all state affairs himself — he meted out justice, commanded 
the troops, and supervised the ecomony of the state. Sometimes, in 
case of need, or for lack of time he would entrust the court of justice 
to his bailiff. Vladimir Monomachus never relied on his servants but 
attended to everything himself, including his horses, falcons and even 
his kitchen. 

War occupied an important place in the life of a prince. The prince’s 
chief military force was a well-armed retinue of horsemen which he 
maintained at his own expense. This military retinue was divided 
into superiors and inferiors. The superiors consisted of rich boyars — 
landed proprietors. The prince conferred with them about everything 
and made no decisions without their consent. If a prince undertook 
anything without the consent of his warriors they would say to him: 
"Thou hast planned this without us. Prince; we shall not go with thee." 

In case of war the prince rallied a levy of foot soldiers from among 
the city inhabitants. He could not force the population to go to war, 
and in such questions he was wholly dependent upon the ''veche'', that 
is, the assembly of the townsfolk. The ''veche'' which was controlled by 
the boyars and rich burghers expressed only the will of the rich burghers and not the populace as a whole. The townspeople were summoned 
to the ''veche'' either by the tolling of a bell or through town-criers. If the 
''veche'' agreed to the campaign, the people shouted: "We shall all go, 
and our children, too." But there were occasions when the townspeople 
could not or wished not to fight. In such cases they demanded that the 
prince make peace with the enemy: "Make peace, Prince, or do thine 
own worrying." Thus, in the 12th century, a prince could not go to 
war or resist an enemy invasion without the support of the ''veche'' or 
the consent of his retinue. This circumstance made the ''veche'' a powerful 
organ. When a new prince came to the throne, the ''veche'' negotiated 
with the prince regarding the conditions on which it was willing to 
accept him. There were times when an undesirable prince was driven 
out by the burghers who invited a new prince in his stead: "Come to 
us. Prince, we want thee." 

===== The Decline of Kiev Rūs =====
The breaking up of Rūs into separate principalities was the result of economical development and territorial expansion which entailed the decline of the old political centres — Kiev, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, and, what was especially important, the weakening of the defence of Rūs against foreign enemies. 
Rūs was no longer able to defend herself effectively against the Polovtsi. The constant feudal wars between the various principalities led to the ruin of the land. The raids of the Polovtsi met with almost no 
resistance. The effects of these wars were most keenly felt by the husbandmen. During campaigns the princes drove them out of other principalities to settle them on their own lands and made them work for 
them, the princes. But even in their own principalities the princes and 
their boyars, by fair means or foul, deprived the free husbandman of 
his land and reduced him to bondage. From here originated the old 
adage: "Don’t set up your household near the household of a prince, 
don’t set up a village near the village of a prince: the prince’s bailiff 
is like fire and his servants like sparks. If you escape the fire, you will 
not escape the spark." Rapacious exploitation by the feudal lords and 
interminable warfare wreaked havoc among the labouring population. 
The devastating raids of the Polovtsi drove the husbandmen from the 
steppe-border regions and depopulated Kiev Rūs. 

"All the cities and all the villages are desolated," writes the chronicler in this connection. "We cross the fields where herds of horses and 
cattle and flocks of sheep used to graze — everything is deserted now, 
the cornfields are overgrown and have become the home of wild animals." The Polovtsi took multitudes of the husbandmen into captivity. "Woe-begone and wretched, black with hunger and thirst, they 
walked through strange lands, naked, barefoot, their feet lacerated 
by thorns; with tears in their eyes they spake unto each other: 'I am 
from such and such a city,' and the other would reply: 'And I am from 
such and such a countryside.' " 

===== The Lay of Prince Igor’s Regiment =====
The grievous consequences 
of feudal disunity and the need for unity if the land of Rūs was to 
be saved are portrayed with great artistic power in a brilliant national 
epic of the Russian people ''The Lay of Prince Igor's Regiment'' (that 
is, Igor’s campaign). This work, written by an unknown author at 
the end of the 13th century, centres around the expedition against 
the Polovtsi that was undertaken by the Seversk princes and led by 
Prince Igor Svyatoslavich. The Seversk princes refused to join the 
league of the Rūs princes against the Polovtsi; later they undertook 
an independent raid and suffered overwhelming defeat. Prince Igor 
himself was taken prisoner. The author depicts Prince Igor as the 
champion of the land of Rūs, going into mortal danger for her sake.
"Filled with martial spirit, he led his brave regiments against the 
land of the Polovtsi to defend the land of Rūs." And Igor spake to 
his warriors: "Brothers and warriors! ’Tis better to be killed than 
taken prisoner. I wish," he said, "to break the spear against the edge 
of the Polovtsi steppe; with you, Men of Rūs, I wish to lay down my 
head or drink of the waters of the Don from my helmet!" The 
entire campaign is described as a heroic feat performed to save the 
motherland from the enemies who were continually ravaging it. The decisive battle is pictured as a sanguinary feast: 'There was not enough bloody wine here; the brave men of Rūs were finishing their feast; 
they gave their kinsmen to drink and they themselves laid down their 
lives for the soil of Rūs." The poet rightly lays the blame for this 
defeat on the princes, who were at war with each other and who did 
not wish to unite in the common struggle against the enemy. He gives 
a graphic description of the afflictions of the land of Rūs, which was 
rent by feudal wars. "At that time internecine strife was sown and 
grew upon the land," he says, "and the span of human life was shortened by the treacheries of the princes. At that time the cries of the 
ploughmen were rarely heard on Rūs soil, but often did the crows 
caw as they shared the corpses among themselves." "Brother spake 
to brother; this is mine and this too is mine, and the princes began 
to call small things great, and to forge treason, and the unclean [the 
heathens, that is, the Polovtsi] came with victories to the land of 
Rūs." The poet addresses an ardent appeal to all the princes to unite 
in defence of the land of Rūs against the Polovtsi: "Place your feet, 
Sires, in the golden stirrups for the wrong we suffer today, for the 
land of Rūs, for the wounds of brave Igor, Son of Svyatoslav!" 

''The Lay of Prince Igor's Regiment'' is remarkable for its artistic 
merits. The author was not merely influenced by the literature of his 
time, but also found inspiration in folk poetry from which he borrowed 
poetic figures of speech and images. His poem is a patriotic appeal 
for the union of the entire land of Rūs against the foreign enemies. 

==== The Galich-Volhynsk Principality in the 12–13th Centuries ====

===== Southwestern Rūs =====
Southwestern Rūs separated from Kiev at 
an early date and formed an independent state on the foothills of the 
Carpathians. It was one of the richest and most populous Russian 
regions. This land suffered less from the inroads of the steppe dwellers 
than the Dnieper region. Its proximity to the countries of Central 
Europe — Poland and Hungary — contributed to the development of 
its trade. The salt mines of Galich supplied all of Kiev Rūs with salt. 
The local feudal lords — boyars and bishops — lost no time in seizing 
the finest lands for themselves. Their wealth enabled the Galich and 
Volhynsk boyars to acquire great political influence and power. They 
had their own bodies of warriors with whom they went to war, they 
maintained relations with foreign states, and exercised the right of 
dismissing their own princes. 

Two principalities were formed in Southwestern Rūs in the 12th 
century: the Galich principality, the chief city of which was Galich, 
and Volhynia, whose main city was Vladimir. The Galich principality thrived greatly under Prince Yaroslav Osmomysl (1152-1187). Evidence of the might of this prince can be found in the words which 
the author of ''The Lay of Prince Igor's Regiment'' addresses to him: 
"Yaroslav Osmomysl of Galich! Thou sittest high on thy throne. 
Thou hast propped up the Hungarian mountains with thine iron 
regiments, thou hast barred the path of the king (of Hungary), thou 
hast shut the gates to the Danube.... Fear of thee fills the lands, thou 
wilt open the gates to Kiev." Yaroslav was called ''Osmomysl'' — man 
of great wisdom — not only because of his native wisdom but also 
because of his great learning — he knew several foreign languages. 

===== The Founding of the Galich-Volhynsk Principality =====
After the 
death of Yaroslav Osmomysl, disturbances broke out in Galich. Displeased with his son, who wanted to rule independently, the boyars 
appealed to the Hungarian king for aid. 

Galich was invaded by Hungarian troops who, with the support 
of boyar traitors placed Andrew, the son of the Hungarian king, on 
the throne. The Hungarians bore themselves as conquerors in Galich 
and aroused a strong feeling of popular animosity. Prince Andrew 
was driven out with the help of the Poles who were called in from 
abroad. However, the disturbances still continued. A descendant of 
Monomachus, Roman Mstislavich, prince of the neighbouring principality of Vladimir-Volhynsk, took advantage of this circumstance 
to seize Galich and annex it to his principality (1199), thus establishing 
the Galich-Volhynsk principality. Roman was one of the most masterful, powerful, and cruel princes of Southern Rūs. He interfered 
in the affairs of the Kiev principality, and waged war against Lithuania. He made the captive Lithuanians work on his land. It is of him 
the proverb says: "Roman, Roman, thy life is ill when the Litva 
must till." The Polovtsi made his name a bugbear for their children. 
In his own principality Roman fought persistently against the boyars 
in an effort to unite the land of Rūs. 

In 1203 Roman was killed in a battle with the Poles. The chronicler 
describes him in the following way: "He rushed at the unclean (the 
heathens) like a lion, his fury was like that of a lynx, he slew them 
like a crocodile, flew over their land like an eagle, was as brave as an 
aurochs, and followed in the steps of his great-grandfather Monomachus." 

Roman left two young sons — Daniel and Vasilko. Taking advantage of their minority, the Galich boyars attempted to seize the 
power. The Hungarians and Poles intervened in the disturbances 
that broke out. The Tatar-Mongolian khans threatened from the east. 
Roman's sons were alternately driven out and recalled. When he 
reached manhood Daniel Romanovich vigorously combated the arbitrary power of the big feudal lords, the boyars. In this struggle he 
found support among the inferior retainers who were wholly dependent 
upon the prince. Even at the most critical times the inferior retainers 
rallied around Daniel Romanovich. The population of the rich cities 
also warmly supported the prince, for they too suffered from the feudal 
wars and the oppression of the feudal lords. A representative 
of the townsfolk, the captain of a troop of one hundred men named 
Mikula, the annals tell us, urged Daniel to exterminate the boyars 
completely, saying: "You cannot eat the honey until you have 
killed the bees." 

Daniel finally established himself on Galich soil with the help 
of the military commonalty and the townspeople. The attempts of the 
bishop and the boyars to keep Daniel out of the city of Galich failed, 
for the people of the city rushed to meet their prince, as the annals 
say, "like children to their father, like bees to the queen bee, like 
thirsting people to a spring." Daniel's brother, Vasilko, who had 
shared with him his adversities and successes, became prince of Volhynia. 

Daniel had to repel the invasions of the Hungarians several times. 
In 1249, when the Tatar-Mongolian yoke settled firmly over Rūs, 
a combined army of Hungarians and Poles invaded the land of Galich. 
Daniel tore into the ranks of the Hungarians and was almost taken 
prisoner, but he escaped, charged the enemy again, and seized and 
tore the Hungarian banner into shreds. The Hungarians fled, soon 
to be followed by the Poles who had engaged Vasilko’s troops. 

The Hungarian king subsequently found it more to his profit to 
form an alliance with Daniel. The latter, in league with Hungary and 
Poland, fought against Czechia and Austria. Daniel's son was married 
to the niece of an Austrian duke, and Daniel hoped, in case of his 
victory, to place his son on the Austrian throne. However, the dual 
campaign ended in failure. Daniel undertook several successful campaigns against the neighbouring Lithuanian tribes. 

The Galich-Volhynsk principality acquired a prominent position 
in Europe. Daniel assumed the title of king. His coronation, however, 
had no tangible effect. Rūs could not count upon the support of Germany and Rome in her struggle against the Tatars. 

In the continuous struggle against foreign enemies and the boyars 
at home Daniel developed into a daring and brave prince who, however, 
was at times too much carried away by his love of military glory. 

In the 13th century the Galich-Volhynsk principality reached a 
flourishing state. A busy commerce with the Dnieper region and 
Western Europe stimulated the growth of cities with a multifarious 
population engaged in trade and crafts. Daniel invited settlers, including many craftsmen, to the city of Kholm, which was fortified 
according to the last word of Western European military science. 
In his struggle against the feudal lords Daniel found support among 
the city population. 
The founding of the city of Lwow — so named in honour of one of Daniel’s sons — also dates back to the 13th century. Lwow became the chief city in the land of Galich. 

Russian culture in the land of Galich-Volhynsk was of a high 
standard. A memorial of this culture are the Galich-Volhynsk annals, 
which are notable for their vivid artistic descriptions and which, in 
poetic quality, are at times reminiscent of ''The Lay of Prince Igor's Regiment''.

Western European culture found access to the land of Galich-Volhynsk through the latter’s trade relations with the countries of 
the West. The churches of Kholm were ornamented in the Catholic 
style with sculptural figures and stained-glass windows.

==== The Principality of Rostov-Suzdal ====

===== Northeastern Rūs =====
The powerful principality of Rostov-Suzdal, 
situated northeast of the land of Kiev, between the Volga and the 
Oka, was formed in the 12th century. The land here could not boast 
of its natural riches. The forests abounded in wild animals and bees, 
and the rivers teemed with fish, but the only large fertile plain was 
that along the Klyazma River. 

Along the Oka and its tributary, the Moskva River, lived the 
Slavonic tribe of Vyatichi. The Slavonic population of this territory 
was augmented by the steady influx of Smolensk Krivichi and Novgorod Slavs. The Slavonic city of Rostov is mentioned as early as the 
10th century. Another very ancient Slavonic city was Suzdal. During the rule of Yaroslav the city of Yaroslavl was founded (11th century). The city of 
Vladimir was probably built during the 
rule of Vladimir Monomachus (12th century). 

The neighbours of the Vyatichi were 
the Merya, Vesi and Mordvinians. The 
chief pursuits of these peoples were tree 
felling, hunting and collection of honey, 
and also agriculture. In the 12th century their clan system was already in a 
state of decay. A number of rich families came to the fore. The tribes were 
ruled by princes. For a long time heathen 
beliefs prevailed among the non-Russian 
population of the Oka and the Volga 
regions. As among the ancient Slavs the 
worship of trees, rocks and the waters 
was widespread. People believed in 
wood-goblins, water-goblins and other 
spirits. They had a strong belief in 
wizards. 

The Russian feudal lords began to 
seize the land of the Merya and Vesi 
and, later, of the Mordvinians. The Russian princes exacted tribute from the 
local population. 

In the 12th century the boyars and 
church authorities both in the Rostov-Suzdal principality and in the Dnieper 
region appropriated the lands inhabited 
by Russian peasants and non-Russian 
peoples and reduced the population to 
bondage. The annals speak of the Rostov bishop, Fyodor, as follows: "Grievously did the people suffer at his hands; they were deprived of their villages and weapons and horses, 
while others he reduced to servitude, threw into prison and robbed." 
By such means did the feudal lords increase their possessions in the 
land of Suzdal. The population between the Oka and the Volga was 
forcibly converted to Christianity. 

An independent principality was formed on the land of Rostov-Suzdal in the first half of the 12th century. The first Rostov-Suzdal prince was Yuri Dolgoruki, son of Vladimir Monomachus. Here he 
seized large domains and had no scruples about appropriating the 
patrimonies of the local boyars. Legend has it that the village belonging to the boyar Kuchka stood on the present site of Moscow. Yuri took possession of this village. The princely demesne of Moscow 
arose on the banks of the Moskva River. It was here that Prince Yuri 
entertained his ally, the prince of Chernigov, in 1147. The estate 
being situated on the boundary between the land of Suzdal and Chernigov, Prince Yuri erected a wooden wall round Moscow, which he 
converted into a fortress (1156). Yuri Dolgoruki was the most powerful 
of the Russian princes of those days. He fought successfully against 
the Volga Bulgars and brought Novgorod under his domination. He 
also succeeded in seizing Kiev. Yuri, who became the prince of Kiev, 
died in 1157. 

===== Andrei Bogolyubski and the Struggle with the Boyars =====
During the reign of Yuri’s son, Andrei Bogolyubski (1157-1174) the land of 
Rostov-Suzdal became a separate feudal principality. Andrei subjected the neighbouring princes and made them his vassals. In 1169 
his troops, operating jointly with the troops of other princes, his 
allies, took Kiev "on the shield" (''i.e.'', stormed it). For three whole 
days they pillaged the ancient capital. The next year Andrei sent an 
army to reduce Novgorod. The people of Novgorod successfully repelled 
the attacks of the Suzdal army, which was compelled to raise the siege 
of the city and withdraw after suffering heavy losses. But Novgorod 
subsisted on grain that came from the land of Suzdal. Andrei stopped 
the delivery of grain to Novgorod, thereby forcing it to surrender. 
It was the events of 1169, when Kiev was taken and sacked, that 
marked its utter decline. On the other hand, the Suzdal city of Vladimir, 
which Andrei made the capital of his principality, acquired great 
importance. 

Andrei built his capital with great splendour, inviting artists 
from Western Europe. The Uspensky Cathedral erected in Vladimir 
during his rule bears traces of the influence of western art. Bogolyubovo, the fortified estate of the prince, was situated near Vladimir. 
Here the grand prince spent the greater part of his time. It was from 
this that he received the name of Bogolyubski.

Uneasy over the might of the Rostov and Suzdal boyars, Andrei 
endeavoured to increase his power within his own principality. He 
banished the boyars and surrounded himself with people of humble 
origin. The commoners, or ''mizinniye'' ("small" people), who suffered 
greatly from the tyranny of the powerful feudal lords, supported 
Andrei. "It is better to walk about in bast shoes on the estate of the 
prince than in fine boots on the estate of the boyar," one of them 
wrote later. The boyars retained their influence in Suzdal and Rostov. 
On the other hand, the craftsmen and inferior retainers who were 
loyal to the prince, were concentrated in Vladimir and the surround
ing cities. With the support of these retainers and the townsfolk, 
Andrei attempted to unite the separate Russian principalities, including Kiev and Novgorod, into a single state. But the absence of economic ties among the various regions of the land of Rūs made this impossible. 

Andrei’s ambition to concentrate all power in his own hands 
brought him into armed conflict with the powerful feudal lords of 
Suzdal. In 1174 the boyars entered into a conspiracy which was headed 
by the Kuchkovichi, whose brother had been executed by the prince. 
The plotters stole into the palace at Bogolyubovo and assassinated 
Andrei. This murder served as the signal for an uprising of the masses 
in Bogolyubovo and Vladimir. The poor sections of the population had 
suffered greatly at the hands of the prince’s underlings. They now took 
advantage of the absence of all authority in the city to wreak vengeance 
on their persecutors. The households of the prince’s servants were plundered and many of their owners were killed. 

===== Consolidation of the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality =====
After Andrei’s death the Rostov and Suzdal boyars decided to secure their independence and, refusing to recognize Andrei’s brothers as princes, 
invited his nephews to rule over them. Andrei’s inferior retinue and 
the townspeople of Vladimir refused to submit to the boyars of Rostov 
and Suzdal. The boyars threatened: "We shall burn Vladimir or send 
down a ''posadnik'' (burgomaster) for they are our serf-masons." But 
Vsevolod Yurievich, brother of Andrei Bogolyubski, supported by his 
soldiers and the townspeople, defeated the powerful feudal lords and 
forced them to recognize him as their prince (1176-1212). 

The Rostov-Suzdal principality came to be called the Vladimir 
principality after the new capital, Vladimir-on-the-Klyazma. 

Vsevolod assumed the title of Grand Prince of Vladimir, and vigorously upheld the traditional seniority of the grand prince among the 
reigning princes. The Novgorodians were forced to accept his nephews 
and sons, whom he sent to them as their princes. The Smolensk 
princes were his "vassals" and compliantly took part in the campaigns 
on which he sent them. Vsevolod seized the Ryazan princes and threw 
them into prison, placing his own son in power in Ryazan. When 
the populace attempted to offer resistance, Ryazan was cruelly 
ravaged. 

"Grand Prince Vsevolod!" the author of ''The Lay of Prince Igor's Regiment'' says in addressing the prince. "With the oars of thy boats 
thou canst scatter the waters of the Volga, and with the helmets of thy 
warriors — drain the Don." 

Vsevolod fought the Volga Bulgars on several occasions. He under
took a great campaign against the Polovtsi, and invaded their steppe
lands. Under Vsevolod friendly relations were established between 
the Vladimir principality and distant Georgia. Vsevolod employed 
Georgian craftsmen to build the Dmitrov Cathedral in Vladimir. Georgian annals speak of the might of the Grand Prince of Vladimir describing him as a man "whom 300 kings obey." 

Vsevolod treated the boyars with the same high hand as did his 
brother Andrei. "He even showed no respect for the powerful boyars," 
the chronicler writes. 

Vsevolod is known as ''Bolshoye Gnezdo'' (the "Large Nest") because 
he had so many sons. After Vsevolod’s death each of his sons received 
an appanage in the principality of Vladimir. As time went on, these 
portions of land were divided up more and more. After separating 
from Kiev Rūs, the land of Vladimir-Suzdal was broken up into a 
number of petty principalities. Under Vsevolod’s sons it was split 
into five parts and under his grandsons, into twelve. The oldest member 
of the prince’s family received the principal city of Vladimir and 
the title "Grand Prince of Vladimir." 

===== The Conquest of the Mordvinian Lands =====
Russian feudalism expanded and absorbed the lands of non-Russian peoples. After Vsevolod’s death the Vladimir princes continued their conquest of the 
peoples living along the Oka and the Middle Volga. The Mordvinians 
retained their independence for a long time. In 1221 Vsevolod’s son, 
the Grand Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich, built a fortress on the site of 
a small Mordvinian town, at the confluence of the Oka and Volga; 
this fortress was named Nizhni Novgorod (now the city of 
Gorky); from here the Russian princes launched their raids on Mordvinian territory. The Mordvinians defended themselves stubbornly. 
Their prince, Purgas, inflicted many defeats on the Russian princes, 
and even attacked Nizhni Novgorod and burned its suburbs, but he 
was unable to capture the fortress. The Russian feudal lords visited 
savage reprisals upon the insubordinate Mordvinian people. 

==== The Land of Novgorod ====

===== Great Novgorod and Its Domains =====
The land of Novgorod, in 
the north, stood apart from the Kiev principality in the 12th century. 

Novgorod, situated on both banks of the River Volkhov at the 
point where it issues from Lake Ilmen, was one of the most ancient 
of Slavonic cities. On the eastern ''Torgovaya'' (trading) side were the 
mait and the square where the ''veche'' used to meet. This part of the 
city was chiefly inhabited by tradesmen, craftsmen and labourers. 
On the western, Sofiiskaya side stood a fort containing the St. Sophia 
Cathedral, where the Novgorod bishop had his residence. Near Novgorod began the land of Novgorod proper, which extended to lakes 
Onega and Ladoga and to the shores of the Gulf of Finland. Here 
were located the vast demesnes of the Novgorod boyars and the church.

Further stretched the extensive colonial possessions of Novgorod, a territory that covered the entire north of our country as far 
as the Ural Mountains. The Novgorod feudal lords collected tribute 
in the form of furs and silver from the peoples inhabiting the 
coast. 

The land of Novgorod was not very fertile. Its people were dependent upon Suzdal for their corn supply. But the Northern Pomorye 
(maritime country) which was rich in fur-bearing animals, was a 
veritable gold mine to the Novgorod boyars. It was connected by 
river routes both with the Baltic Sea and with the most important 
Russian cities. Owing to its geographical position Novgorod was a 
natural medium of trade between Europe and Rūs. German and Swedish merchants, at great profit to themselves, exported cloths and 
other fabrics, as well as metallic wares to Rūs and imported from 
Novgorod furs and raw materials such as flax and hemp. Regularly 
twice a year caravans of German "guests," as the merchants were 
called, arrived in Novgorod: "summer guests" came by the water 
route up the Neva; "winter guests"— by sleigh through Livonia. Two 
inns were built for the visiting "German" and "Goth" guests (the 
latter meaning merchants from the Swedish island of Gothland) — a 
"German" inn and a "Goth" inn. The German cities of the Baltic 
that traded with the countries of Northern Europe and in particular 
with Novgorod, formed a confederacy which later, in the 14th century, 
became known as the ''Hanse'' (Hanseatic League). Novgorod merchants acted as the intermediaries in the foreign trade with Eastern Europe, reselling the articles of foreign craftsmen and similar "German" goods 
to other Russian principalities.

===== Conquest of the Northern Peoples =====
At that time the Nentsi, 
a people whom the Novgorodians called Samoyedes, roamed the tundra seaboard of the Arctic Ocean. The main pursuit of these people 
was deer-breeding, while trapping water-fowl and polar fox provided 
an additional means of subsistence. The Nentsi lived in clans, in 
which the head-man was also the shaman, ''i.e.'', the priest. The Nentsi 
were a superstitious people who believed in the power of their 
shamans. 

South of the tundra, in the taiga, lived tribes of hunters — the 
Komi. The people living along the Vychegda Pviver (a tributary of 
the Northern Dvina) were called Zyryane by the Russians, and those 
inhabiting the upper reaches of the Kama were known as the Permi 
(Permiaks). 

On the slopes of the Northern Urals lived peoples whom the Novgorodians called the Yugra. They applied this name to the people known 
today as Mansi (Voguls) and the Khanti (Ostiaks). Their land 
was famous for its wealth of fur-bearing animals. The Novgorod 
people used to say that tiny squirrels and deer fell from the clouds 
in that country instead of rain, and that they then grew up 
and scattered in all directions. The Ural peoples also mined 
silver. 

The Novgorod boyars formed detachments of the Novgorod poor 
and their own serfs, equipped them at their own expense, and sent 
them on marauding expeditions to the northern lands. These detachments sailed up the rivers in barks called ''ushkui'', the members of 
these detachments being called ''ushkuiniki''. The ''ushkuiniki'' would 
swoop down on the dwellers of the north, rob them, take away 
their furs, and carry off their women and children, whom they 
sold into slavery. By such means the Novgorod boyars subjugated 
the peoples of the north and made them pay tribute in furs to 
Novgorod. 

The peoples of the north frequently tried to rebel. In 1187 the 
Yugra (a Ural-Altaic tribe) slew the Novgorod tribute collectors. 
Several years later a large punitive force was sent from Novgorod 
to subdue the land of Yugra, The Yugra prince intrenched himself 
in his stronghold, and to gain time sent a message to the Novgorod 
waywode: "We are saving up money and sables and other goods to 
pay tribute. Do not ruin your subjects!" Novgorod agreed to wait; 
meanwhile the tribesmen of the Yugra prince began to rally around 
him in his stronghold. Aided and abetted by certain Novgorod traitors 
the prince of Yugra inveigled the Novgorod captains into his townlet, 
ostensibly for the purpose of negotiating with them, and murdered them. The remnants of the Novgorod troops made their way back to Novgorod with difficulty. The Yugra, however, were unable to 
maintain their independence; other Novgorod detachments arrived 
and once more forced them to pay tribute. "Sovereign Great Novgorod" 
(''Gospodin Veliki Novgorod'') grew prosperous and powerful on its 
colonial tribute.

===== The Social System of Novgorod =====
The Novgorod boyars seized 
the best lands in Novgorod and the conquered regions, which 
they cultivated with the labour of their own serfs and peasants. The 
latter were obliged to deliver to the boyars a considerable part of 
their crops (as much as half — ''polovina'' — from which they received 
their name ''polovniki''). The boyars exercised their power to prevent 
the ''polovniki'' from quitting their estates and delivered the products 
of their hunting, fishing and agriculture on credit to the rich Novgorod 
merchants who sold these products abroad. The petty tradesmen were 
dependent upon the rich merchants. The crafts were well developed 
in Novgorod, but the craftsmen also fell into the servitude of the 
boyars and merchants. The poor were hired to load goods and to row 
boats. 

Thus all the fruits of colonial conquest were reaped by the boyars 
and the merchants. The latter exploited the poor Novgorod populace — 
the ''chorniye'' ("black people") — as the commoners were called. 
The craftsmen and petty tradesmen were in debt to the boyars 
and merchants. The cruel exploitation to which the ''chorniye'' 
were subjected often led to violent rebellions against the ruling 
classes. 

===== The Prince and the Veche in Novgorod =====
The wealth of the 
upper stratum of Novgorod society contributed to the strengthening 
of its political power. The Novgorod boyars and merchants greatly 
restricted the power of the Novgorod prince. The Novgorod ''veche'' 
was more powerful and influential than that in other cities, but its masters were the boyars, who managed all affairs. In the first quarter 
of the 12th century the Novgorod 
''veche'', controlled by the boyars, 
contrived to have all the chief officials elected from among the Novgorod boyars. Important concessions like this the people of Novgorod wrung from the princes by 
force. Open rebellion broke out in 
Novgorod in 1136, during the reign 
of Vladimir Monomachus’ grandson, Vsevolod Mstislavich. Many 
accusations were levelled at the 
prince; he was criticized for not 
showing any concern about the 
peasants, and for being the first to 
flee from the field in time of war. 
The boyars held Vsevolod and his 
family in custody for two months, 
after which he was allowed to leave 
Novgorod. Beginning with that 
period the power of the Novgorod 
boyars greatly increased. However, 
the Novgorodians could not get 
along without a prince. Novgorod 
needed a prince and his retinue as 
a military force which it could rely 
on in its struggle against external enemies. But every time a prince 
came in conflict with the "will of Novgorod" the burghers "bowed 
him out," that is, they banished him and invited a new more acceptable candidate in his stead. 

The Vladimir grand princes often attempted to bring Novgorod 
under their sway, but the Novgorodians stood their ground and did 
not yield their independence. Yaroslav, the son of Grand Prince Vsevolod Yurievich, encroached on the rights of the Novgorod boyars, 
and their indignation was so great that he had to leave the city in 
1216. An early frost that year ruined the crops in Novgorod land. 
The road from Suzdal was held by Yaroslav who did not allow a single waggon of corn to enter the city. Soon famine set in. The people 
of Novgorod rallied an army under the leadership of the prince of 
Toropets, Mstislav Udaloi (the Bold). Yaroslav leagued himself with 
his brother, the Grand Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich of Vladimir and 
retreated to the land of Suzdal. A pitched battle took place on the 
Lipitsa River. The men of Novgorod, following an ancient custom, dismounted from their horses, removed all their superfluous clothing 
and their footwear, and rushing 
barefooted at the enemy, pressed 
the Suzdal troops hard. At a decisive moment Prince Mstislav and 
his retinue joined the fight and 
thrice breached the enemy’s lines. 

The Suzdal soldiers quickly took 
to their heels. 

The battle of Lipitsa ensured 
to the Novgorod people the preservation of their "liberties." Every 
new prince invited to Novgorod 
was compelled to sign a ''ryad'' or 
contract binding himself to comply 
with the Novgorod system of self-government. 
The prince had no 
right to impose new taxes or acquire 
lands. The government of Novgorod 
and its region was entrusted to 
persons elected by the Novgorodians 
themselves, and the prince could not dismiss them "without fault." 
The prince’s military retinue was not admitted to participation in 
the administration. 

The ''veche'' elected a ''posadnik'' (a burgomaster or city magistrate) 
from among the Novgorod boyars to administer the affairs of the city. 
Without him the prince had no right to administer justice or decide 
important questions. To assist the burgomaster a ''tisyatski'' was 
elected who was in command of the Novgorod popular levy and was 
also the arbiter in trading affairs. Even the office of bishop of Novgorod was elective. It was not the prince but the burgomaster and 
the ''tisyatski'' who actually governed the city. 

The ''veche'' was the supreme authority in Novgorod. It invited 
princes to come and rule, banished them, elected officials and administered justice. The ''veche'' assembled at the ringing of the ''veche'' bell. 
It sometimes happened that ''veche'' meetings were held simultaneously 
on the Torgovaya and the Sofiiskaya sides and contradictory decisions 
would be taken by them. Clashes between the two ''veches'' usually occurred on the Volkhov Bridge. 

The ''veche'' was a peculiar form of medieval democracy. "Sovereign 
Great Novgorod" was the first ancient Russian republic, although 
a feudal republic. The ''veche'', however, did not reflect the interests 
of the masses of the Novgorod population, being entirely controlled 
by the boyar feudal lords and, to some extent, the rich merchants.

By means of bribes and baits the boyars created a faction of 
"rowdies" with whose help they 
dominated the ''veche''. Rich landholders and the merchants held 
all the power in their hands and 
reduced the authority of the 
prince to nought. The toiling 
people of Novgorod were in virtual bondage to the boyars. At 
times the Novgorod poor would 
rise against their oppressors — 
the boyars.

===== Novgorod Culture =====
Evidences of the rich medieval culture of Novgorod are to be found 
in the handsome buildings erected by its princes, boyars and 
merchants, some of which still 
survive. One of the most remarkable monuments of the 12th 
century was the Nereditsa 
Church, with its magnificent mural paintings recently destroyed 
by the fascist barbarians. The art of writing flourished in Novgorod. 
Here, as early as the 11th century, an attempt was made to compile 
annals similar to the chronicles of Kiev. From the end of the 11th 
century such annals were kept in Novgorod, and the most important 
events in the city were recorded in them. 

Reminiscences of Novgorod’s ancient splendour survive in the 
legend of Sadko, the "rich guest" (merchant) and Vasili Buslayev. 
The former tells of the rich trade and the journeys across the seas 
made by Novgorod merchants; the latter - about the turbulent conflicts in the ''veche''. 

===== Pskov =====
Of the minor cities subordinate to Novgorod, the 
city of Pskov became the most powerful in the 12th century. Active 
trade was carried on between Pskov and the cities of the Baltic. This 
trade enriched the Pskov boyars and merchants and enhanced their 
power. Gradually they won their complete independence from Novgorod. 

Novgorod and Pskov with their system of self-government resembled 
the "free cities" of Western Europe. However, there was an essential 
difference. In Western European cities the power was entirely in the 
hands of the merchants and the owners of large workshops, whereas 
in Novgorod and Pskov, who derived their wealth from extensive 
domains in the Maritime Region, the power belonged to the feudal lords — the boyars and the church, the rich merchants enjoying only a limited share of the authority. 

==== Transcaucasia and Central Asia in the 11th–12th Centuries ====

===== Georgia in the 11th and 12th Centuries =====
Transcaucasia maintained regular relations with Kiev Rūs in the 12th century. 

Georgia, where feudal relations were more developed than in Kiev 
Rūs, became very strong in the 12th century. The Georgian feudal 
lords seized the peasants’ community lands and reduced the peasants 
themselves to serfdom. They built castles in the mountains and established a tyrannical rule over the peasants. The revolts of the peasants 
against their oppressors were crushed by armed force; "the people" — as 
a monk chronicler puts it — "were filled with fear of their lords." Free 
peasant communities continued to exist only in the inaccessible mountain region. 

The enhancement of the king’s power, which began to take place 
in Georgia in the 10th century, was resisted by the great feudal lords, 
who endeavoured to preserve their independence. The kings were supported by the petty feudal lords and the merchants, the former needing 
a strong monarch to keep the peasants in subordination, while to the 
merchants a united Georgia meant unhampered possibilities of trade. 

The unification of Georgia was hindered by incursions of the 
Turkoman-Seljuks, a people from the Central Asiatic steppes under 
the leadership of sultans (sovereigns) of the Seljuk family (whence 
their name). The Seljuks conquered Persia, Iraq and part of Asia Minor. 

The first devastating invasion of the Seljuks in Transcaucasia 
(Armenia) occurred in 1048-1049. Beginning with the sixties of the 
11th century, Georgia became the object of continuous invasions by 
the Seljuks. It was then that Tbilisi was captured. "The Turkomans 
spread over the country like locusts," an eyewitness relates. "They 
plundered the people and turned them into slaves. They remained 
here till the first snowfall, eating the people out of house and home 
and putting to die sword all those who tiled to seek refuge in the 
mountains, forests and caves. Those who hid in the castles perished 
from cold and hunger. With the return of spring the Turkomans came 
again. No one in the land sowed or leaped a harvest; only wild beasts 
roamed where once people lived. Dwellings were destroyed by fire; 
the rivers ran red with the blood of men." 

To effectively combat the invasions of the Seljuks, a strong state 
power was needed, capable of uniting the isolated feudal domains. 
This became possible under the Georgian king, David the Renovator (1089-1125). David fought against the feudal lords, who made several attempts on his life. He created a strong army, organized a guards 
unit of five thousand men; besides this, he brought over 40,000 Polovtsi from the Kuban steppes of whom he formed a regular army. He 
also subjugated the Caucasian hillmen. 

After uniting Georgia, David made war on the Seljuks, whom 
he drove out of his domains. In 1122 he liberated Tbilisi. David began 
to extend his power over the neighbouring lands as well: he conquered 
Azerbaijan, and undertook an expedition to Armenia, whither he was 
called in by the native Armenian population, who looked upon the Georgians as their liberators from the yoke of the Seljuks and other alien 
princes. 

David centralized the administration of Georgia. The country was 
divided into regions under the administration of governors. A code 
of laws was issued. David appointed and dismissed bishops. Gradually 
peace set in in Georgia. Commerce revived. Many craftsmen were invited from Armenia. The silk fabrics of Georgia won fame far beyond 
the borders of the land. They were exported even to Constantinople. 
David built new cities, including the city of Gori. He renovated bridges 
and aqueducts and erected palaces and other buildings. For these activities he was surnamed the Renovator. Georgian chronicles describe 
David in the following words: "He rose above all the kings of the earth; 
in his left hand he held the sea; his right hand rested on the rivers. 
In battle he was like a lion." 

David’s successors extended their domains in Armenia to Erzerum. 
Feudal Georgia acquired exceptional splendour under Queen Tamara 
(1184-1213). She waged war against the feudal lords and maintained 
power only by making considerable concessions to the most powerful 
of them, promising to rule the country jointly with a council of leading feudal lords. 

At that time Geoigia occupied a vast territory from the Black Sea 
to the Caspian, and from the Caucasian Mountain Range to Erzerum. 
Under Tamara several Persian regions were annexed to Georgia. The 
country played an important role among the states of Eastern Europe 
and Asia. It also established ties with Suzdal Rūs.

===== The Poet Shot’ha Rust’hveli =====
Georgian culture in the reign 
of Tamara was in a flourishing state. This was in great measure due 
to Georgia’s position at the intersection of busy trade routes joining 
the countries of the west and the east. Here the cultural influences of 
Asia Minor, Persia and Byzantium met. Young Georgian feudal lords 
went to Constantinople to study. Georgian architecture reflected the 
influence of Byzantium, Georgian literature that of Persia. From the 
Arabs came a knowledge of medicine and astronomy. Thus a Georgian 
native culture was created, which, in its turn, influenced the neighbouring countries, in particular Russian culture. Education in Georgia 
in the 12th century made great strides with the opening of schools and the growth of literature. Tamara surrounded herself with poets. 
Foremost among them was the great Georgian poet, Shot'ha Rust'hveli. 
His famous poem, ''Knight in the Tiger's Skin'', is of world significance, 
being the first and earliest work of the Renaissance. 

Shot'ha Rust'hveli was educated in Greece and was one of the most 
enlightened feudal lords of Georgia. He served at the court of Queen 
Tamara and was an ardent supporter of a strong monarchy. According 
to legend he greatly aided Tamara in her struggle against unruly vassals, thereby incurring the hatred of the nobility and eventually being 
forced to withdraw into exile. His poem, written at the end of the 12th 
century, is dedicated to Tamara. 

Rust'hveli drew upon Georgian folk poetry for his inspiration. His 
poem reflects the age-old heroic struggle of the Georgian people for 
their independence against the Persians, Byzantines, Arabs, Seljuks, 
and other peoples.

<blockquote>
No! The sons of alien Persia 

Never our sovereign lords shall be!
</blockquote>

the heroine of the poem exclaims. Rustaveli lauded the deeds of chivalry of the Georgian Knights who fought for their country’s independence, 
and sang of intrepidity and defiance of death.

<blockquote>
Better death, but death with glory, 

Than inglorious days of shame.
</blockquote>

Realizing the necessity of unity in the struggle, Rustaveli extolled friendship and brotherhood among the warriors.

<blockquote>
He who friendship shuns with near ones, 

Is his own most bitter foe. 

He that shall desert a comrade, 

He will taste the dregs of woe.
</blockquote>

A vehement opponent of feudal discord Rust’hveli called upon the 
people to support the royal power. At the same time he championed 
the cause of the exploited classes in their struggle against the tyranny 
of the feudal lords. One of his heroes orders the following disposition 
to be made of his wealth: 

<blockquote>
Give unto the weak and homeless, 

And the slaves do thou make free, 

Orphans feed, provide with plenty, 

Help the poor that they may prosper 

And by folk whom I do shelter,

E’er my praises sung shall be.
</blockquote>

Rust’hveli’s poem has been translated into all the principal languages and, as a great work of art, will ever evoke universal admiration.

===== Armenia in the 11th and 12th Centuries =====
In the 11th and 
12th centuries the feudal order in Armenia, as in Georgia, was in full 
flower. Vast demesnes were concentrated in the hands of the Armenian 
clergy and nobility. His contemporaries wrote of an Armenian bishop 
that he daily sent out 800 ploughs with six oxen each to till the soil. 
The peasants were made serfs and worked under the corvée. 

The 10th century saw the beginning of Armenia’s break-up into 
several independent feudal principalities. The Byzantine empire took 
this opportunity to seize one principality after another, until, in the 
first half of the 11th century, it had annexed the whole of Armenia. 
When, however, Armenia was exposed to the attacks of the Seljuks, 
the Byzantine government was unable to defend it. In 1064 the Seljuks 
took Ani. A Byzantine army that attempted to recover Armenia for 
Byzantium was defeated and the emperor taken prisoner. The Seljuk 
invasion seriously affected the population. The people were impoverished and the country laid waste. 

Small feudal estates remained intact only in the mountainous 
districts, whither the impoverished population sought refuge; here, 
too, fled the ruined feudal lords. Uniting under the leadership of the 
feudal lords, groups of Armenian warriors continued their struggle 
against the foreign enemy. For a long time the "sons of Armenia, the 
heroic defenders of their motherland," as Stalin expressed it, valiantly 
defended their mountain fastnesses and gorges. The mountainous district of Sasun defended its independence longer than all the others. 

Despite Armenia’s ruthless devastation by the Seljuks, its cultural 
life did not die out. On the contrary, Armenian culture exercised no 
little infiuence on the neighbouring countries. 

===== Azerbaijan in the 11th and 12th Centuries =====
The region of 
Shirvan in the northern part of Azerbaijan, contiguous with Georgia, 
was occupied by the feudal kingdom of the Shirvan shahs (or kings) 
in the 11th and 12th centuries. In the last quarter of the 11th century 
the Seljuks forced the Shirvan shahs to pay tribute to them but did 
not interfere in the domestic affairs of the country. The Georgian king, 
David the Renovator, marched against Shirvan; since then the Shirvan 
shahs became the vassals of Georgia and entered into a military alliance with her. This alliance resulted not merely from Georgia’s victory, but from the close commercial ties between the two countries 
and their need for union in order to defend themselves against their 
common external enemies.

An important trade centre of Azerbaijan was the city of Derbent, 
situated on a narrow strip between the Caucasian Mountain Range 
and the Caspian Sea. Intercourse with the Northern Caucasus and 
Rūs was maintained through this pass. The Derbent Pass was protected by strong walls. The city of Shemakha was an important centre 
for silk production and silk trade. 

The 11th century saw the final process in the foundation 
of an Azerbaijan nation formed by intermarriage of the local 
Albanian tribes with the Polovtsi from the north, and the Turkomans 
from the south. A large section of the Albanians adopted the 
Moslem faith. Those who preserved Christianity merged with the 
Armenians. 

Her Persian neighbour exercised a great influence on the culture 
of Azerbaijan, where the feudal lords spoke the Persian tongue and 
everything was written in that language. But the Azerbaijan people 
also contributed much of their own to Persian culture. There were 
two remarkable Azerbaijan poets: Nizami and Khakani, contemporaries 
of Shot’ha Rust’hveli. 

Like Rustaveli, Nizami sang of chivalry and deeds of valour. 
He borrowed his themes from legends about Alexander the Great and 
the ancient Persian kings. His poem about Alexander the Great, 
filled with fantastic, fabulous description, mentions the war which 
Alexander is alleged to have waged against the Rūs, and is probably 
a reminiscence of the Rūs expeditions to the Caspian Sea in the 10th 
century. Khakani, the son of a carpenter and a Christian female slave, 
was a brilliant lyric poet; he wrote beautiful love poems and odes, 
but his masterpiece is the ''Prison Elegy'', written by him in prison, 
where he was thrown by order of the Shirvan shah, into whose disfavour he had fallen. 

Nizami and Khakani wrote in the Persian language, although 
they were native Azerbaijans, They did much to perfect the literary 
language of Persia. Their work was considerably influenced by Azerbaijan’s cultural intercourse with Georgia. 

===== Central Asia from the 10th to the Beginning of the 13th Centuries =====
At the end of the 10th century the state of the Samanids 
was destroyed by the nomadic Turkic tribes. The Turkomans mingled 
with the indigenous population, who adopted the Turkic language 
and, to some extent, Turkic customs. During the first half of the 12th 
century, the Kara-Kitais, a numerous nomadic people with as many 
as 40,000 ''kibitkas'', invaded Central Asia from the east and chose the 
valley of the Chu River for their pastoral pursuits. The dependence 
of the indigenous population inhabiting the region between the Amu 
Darya and Syr Darya rivers upon the Kara-Kitais was confined to 
the payment of tribute.

Khoresm formed an independent state. Its rulers, the Khoresm 
shahs, succeeded in defending their independence against the Kara-Kitais. Khoresm was attacked on the west by the Turkoman-Seljuks, 
but the latter were defeated. Under Shah Mukhammed (1200-1220) 
the region between the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya and Northern 
and Eastern Persia were incorporated in Khoresm, which at that 
time was a great political power in Asia and culturally far superior 
to many European states. 

=== Mongol Conquests in the 13th Century ===

==== The Empire of Genghis Khan ====

===== The Social System of the Mongols in the 12th and the Beginning of the 13th Centuries =====
Eastern Europe, Transcaucasia and 
Central Asia were conquered by the Mongols in the 13th century. 
The Mongols inhabited the steppes of Central Asia, north of China. 
They were a pastoral people whose chief pursuit was primitive, nomadic herding. A subsidiary means of livelihood was hunting wild 
fowl by beating up the game from cover (battue). The Mongols did 
not cultivate corn and rarely used it. The necessity of feeding a large 
number of livestock compelled the Mongols to roam from place to place 
in search of good and abundant fodder. The Mongols lived in felt ''kibitkas'' 
or tents, which were placed on ox-drawn waggons and used as movable 
habitations. The women lit fires in the tents and cooked the food, an 
opening at the top of the tent providing an exit for the smoke. From 
a distance it looked as though an entire city was in motion. 

At first the Mongols roamed in clans. The livestock belonged to 
the entire clan and was grazed jointly. Several clans living together 
formed a "horde" or tribe. Gradually private ownership of livestock 
and pasture land developed among the Mongols and inequality appeared among the members of the horde. To wage war the tribe elected chieftains, or ''boghaturs'' as they were called. Large detachments 
of warriors rallied about a brave and rich ''boghatur''. The military 
chieftains frequently seized the power in their native tribes and 
became khans. Thus the khans, their clansmen and warriors came to 
own large numbers of cattle and slaves. The poor Mongols had to 
work for the khans and their suite: they shepherded the herds, made 
''kumiss'' (an intoxicating liquor made from mare’s milk), sheared the 
sheep, fulled felt, etc.

As the exploitation of the masses of this nomadic society increased, the Mongol khans developed into feudal lords similar to the landowners 
in Western Europe and Rūs. The khans owned the pasture lands and 
large herds. Their own tribesmen became their bondsmen, over whom 
the khans maintained their power with the aid of their retinues. 

===== The Empire of Genghis Khan =====
Yesukai, whose clan roamed the 
steppes of Eastern Transbaikal, was one of the most outstanding 
Mongol chieftains in the 12th century. He fell in battle against a 
neighbouring people, the Tatars. After his death his son, Temuchin, 
then a minor, was unable to retain the power. Even his nearest clansmen 
deserted him. But when he grew older his daring drew many warriors 
to him. He became the chief of a small but fearless group of warriors. 
With the help of one of the neighbouring khans the young Temuchin 
routed the Tatars, exterminated almost all the men, and spared only 
the young, who were "no higher than the linchpin of a cart"; the 
women and children were made slaves. Subsequently the neighbouring tribes attached the name of Tatars to the people of Genghis 
Khan and called them indiscriminately both Tatars and Mongols. 
After his victory over the Tatars Temuchin began to extend his power over other tribes. In 1206 a council of Mongol feudal lords, the ''kurultai'', 
proclaimed Temuchin the supreme 
khan of all the Mongols. Temuchin 
adopted the name and title of 
Genghis Khan. He ruled over a 
great empire of Mongol, Turkic and 
Manchurian tribes. 

Genghis Khan’s state was not united. All the members of the 
house of Genghis Khan received special domains. Genghis Khan either 
left the tribes he subjugated under 
the power of their own princes or 
subordinated them to his warriors. 
Each domain had to send a definite 
number of warriors to Genghis 
Khan. These domains were named 
after the number of men in the respective levies, forming units of a 
hundred, a thousand, and ten thousand men. The vassals were named 
accordingly. The chiefs of a troop 
of a thousand and ten thousand 
ruled over the lesser feudal lords. In spite of the fact that his empire 
was split into so many parts Genghis Khan firmly held supreme state 
power in his hands. He formed a well-organized bodyguard which 
served as his mainstay. He had an excellent army with an amazingly 
efficient military organization. The troops went into battle in formations of thousands, hundreds and tens, under the leadership of 
their respective commanders. The main force was the cavalry, armed 
with bows and arrows. The Mongols learned the art of warfare from 
the Chinese. When besieging cities they used missile engines, incendiary projectiles and battering-rams to break down walls. 

The empire created by Genghis Khan was a military empire whose 
chief aim was war and conquests. "The wealth of the neighbours," 
Engels wrote, "excited the greed of the peoples who began to regard 
the acquisition of wealth as one of the main purposes of life. They 
were barbarians: plunder appeared to them easier and even more 
honourable than production. War, once waged simply to avenge 
aggression or as a means of enlarging territory that had become restricted, was now waged for the sake of plunder alone, and became a 
regular profession."<ref>Engels, ''The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State'', Eng. ed., Moscow, 1940, p. 135.</ref> 

===== The Conquest of Central Asia =====
Having united the nomadic tribes, 
Genghis Khan set about conquering the neighbouring countries. In 
1207 Juji, the son of Genghis Khan, subjugated the peoples of Southern 
Siberia — the Turkic tribe of Kirghiz on the Upper Yenisei, the Mongol 
tribe of Buryats on Lake Baikal, and others. The conquest of China 
was begun in 1211, followed after several years by the invasion of 
Central Asia. This brought the Mongols into conflict with the Khoresm 
shah, Mukhammed, who, however, was unable to offer effective resistance to the Mongols, because his kingdom was torn by internal disturbances. The heterogeneous tribes of which his kingdom was made 
up were at war with each other. The military chiefs, regional governors 
and representatives of the higher clergy, alarmed at the prospect of 
losing their feudal possessions, betrayed their country wherever possible and treacherously surrendered cities to Genghis Khan. After his 
first defeat Mukhammed fled from Khoresm and died on an island in 
the Caspian Sea. Left to the mercy of fate, Khoresm, despite the 
desperate resistance of its inhabitants, fell a prey to the conquerors. 
Samarkand, Bokhara and other cities were taken by the Mongols and 
subjected to terrible devastation. The country was ruthlessly ravaged. 
The large Murghab dam was wrecked, with the result that the city of 
Merv was completely destroyed. The entire kingdom of Mukhammed 
passed into the hands of Genghis Kkan, who also became ruler over 
a considerable part of Persia. 

===== The Invasion of Transcaucasia and the Black Sea Steppes =====
The Mongol hosts, under the leadership of Genghis Khan’s chieftains, 
next set out to conquer Transcaucasia and the Caucasus. They ravaged 
Azerbaijan, Armenia and Georgia and invaded the steppes of the 
Polovtsi, whose khans appealed to the Russian princes for aid. "If 
you do not help us," their envoys said, "we will be slain today, and 
you — tomorrow." 

In 1223 the Russian princes, with the Kiev prince at their head, 
marched out to the steppes to meet the Tatars, as the Russians called 
the Mongols. The Tatars started to retreat, thus luring the Russian 
troops deeper into the steppe. The Russians and the Polovtsi went 
as far as the Kalka River, which flows into the Azov Sea. There was 
no concord among the Russian princes. The bravest of them, Mstislav 
the Bold, with several young princes and the Polovtsi, engaged the 
Tatars without warning the other princes. A pitched battle took place 
in which the Russians were gaining the upper hand. Daniel Romanovich of Galich, at that time still quite a youth, especially distinguished 
himself. He was wounded, but in the heat of battle was not even 
aware of it. The Polovtsi, however, were unable to withstand a charge 
of the Tatars and fled, throwing the Russian ranks into confusion. 
The Russians were utterly defeated. Mstislav and Daniel barely managed to escape. Meanwhile, the Kiev and other princes who had not 
participated in the battle, stood encamped on a nearby bill and made 2no attempt to join the action although they saw the disastrous turn 
of affairs. The Tatars attacked them too. The Russians stood their 
ground for three days but were finally compelled to surrender. The 
princes were promised their lives but the promise was not kept — they 
were murdered. After their victory on the Kalka the Mongols advanced to the Volga and attacked the Volga Bulgars. Here, however, 
they encountered failure and retired to Mongolia across the Kazakh 
steppes. Genghis Khan continued his war against China. He subjugated 
the land of Tangut (in Southern Mongolia). 

Thus a strong military power came into existence in the Mongolian steppes. The seizure of civilized countries essentially influenced 
the life and empire-building activities of the Mongols, especially in 
the case of China. Genghis Khan employed the services of Chinese 
officials for improving the organization and government of his vast 
empire. 

==== The Conquest of Eastern Europe ====

===== Conquest of Russian Lands by the Mongols =====
Genghis Khan died 
in 1227 at a venerable age. At the time of his death his empire consisted of Mongolia proper, Northern China, Southern Siberia, Central 
Asia and Transcaucasia. 

After Genghis Khan’s death his empire was split into several 
large dominions called which were divided among his sons and grandsons. Ogdai, the third son of Genghis Khan, was recognized 
as his successor, the "Grand Khan." He was given Mongolia and 
Northern China. The other members of Genghis Khan’s family were 
subordinate to Ogdai. Genghis Khan’s second son, Chagatai, received 
Central Asia east of Khoresm, that is, present-day Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and part of Kazakhstan. His dominions came to be called the 
Chagatai ''ulus''. Another large Mongolian state on the territory of 
present-day U.S.S.R. was that of the Golden Horde, founded by 
Genghis Khan’s grandson, Batu. To Batu’s share fell all the lands 
west of the Irtysh "where only the hoofs of Mongolian horses have 
trodden." Batu marched out to conquer western lands. In 1236 his 
horde crossed the Ural River (the Yaik), invaded the land of the 
Volga Bulgars and mercilessly ravaged it. 

The next year the Tatars invaded the Ryazan principality. Divided 
as it was into a number of independent principalities, Northeastern 
Rūs was powerless against the Tatar hordes. The princes failed to 
unite in their struggle against the common foe. The Grand Prince of 
Vladimir, Yuri Vsevolodovich (son of Vsevolod the "Large Nest"), 
refused to help the Ryazan princes. Ryazan was captured 
and razed to the ground. The 
Tatars destroyed Vladimir and 
overran the neighbouring principalities, "mowing the people 
down like grass." In one month 
they took and burnt 14 towns 
including Moscow. 

Yuri Vsevolodovich, the 
Grand Prince of Vladimir, and 
his troops were encamped north 
of the Volga on a vast field near 
the Sit River, a tributary of 
the Mologa. The Tatars surrounded and defeated the Russian 
army (1238), the grand prince 
falling in the battle. Batu 
wanted to march farther north 
to the land of Novgorod, but 
the city being well protected by 
impassable forests and swamps, 
he turned to the Volga steppes. 

On the way south he encountered 
serious resistance on the part of 
the city of Kozelsk (on the Zhizdra River). It defended itself 
desperately for seven weeks, for which the Tatars named it the 
"city of fury." After reducing the Polovtsi and conquering the Crimea, 
Batu in 1240 advanced against Kiev and besieged the city. The inhabitants of Kiev defended the city manfully. So deafening was the 
noise of creaking carts, the braying of camels, and the neighing of 
horses that people could not hear each other. The Tatars used battering
rams day and night until they finally beat down the walls of the besieged city. Even then the people of Kiev continued to fight in the 
breach. Forced to retreat, they erected a palisade in the centre of the 
city during the night, and the following morning the Tatars had to 
storm this fortification as well. 

After taking Kiev the Tatars invaded the principality of Galich-Volhynsk. Vladimir, Galich and other cities were captured. The Tatar 
hordes next laid waste to Poland. Batu himself went into Hungary, 
routed the troops of the Hungarian king and moved on to Czechia, 
but the resistance he encountered here was so great that he was forced 
to return to the Volga steppes. Batu set up his headquarters near the 
mouth of the Volga.

The memory of the Russian people heroic struggle against the 
Tatars still lives in legend. The hero of one of these epics, Ilya of 
Murom, delivered Kiev from the Tatars who were besieging it:

<blockquote>
He fought fiercely, his sword smote them — 

The Tatars of strength were bereft; 

In swamps sank they, in deep rivers — 

Their camps and their plunder they left.
</blockquote>

===== The Tatar Yoke =====
Batu’s empire was called the "Golden Horde," 
that is, the golden tribe. Gradually the Tatars (Mongols) were as
similated by the Polovtsi, from whom they adopted the Turkic tongue 
and with whom they formed one common Turkic-speaking horde. The 
Russian princes agreed to pay tribute to the Tatars and to send them 
troops. Batu granted the princes letters of investiture called ''yarlyki'', 
entitling them to the possession of a principality. Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, the brother of Prince Yuri who had been killed on the Sit 
River, had the right through primogeniture, to the title of grand 
prince, and Batu recognized him as the Grand prince of Vladimir. Other 
princes who submitted to the Tatars also remained at the head of their 
princedoms. Their visits to Batu at the Horde were attended by humiliating ceremonies. Before entering the khan's tent, the princes had 
to pass between two bonfires. The Tatars considered that the fire 
cleansed those going to the khan of all wicked designs. If a prince refused to perform this rite he was killed as a malefactor (such was the fate 
of Prince Mikhail of Chernigov). Upon entering the khan's tent the 
prince had to bow to the ground before the khan and to remain on 
his knees throughout the reception. 

Batu appointed governors, ''baskaki'', to the principal Russian cities 
who oppressed the population with their heavy extortions and 
plunder. 

The Grand Khan Ogdai had a census taken of the population in 
all the lands subject to the Mongols, on the basis of which still greater 
tribute was exacted from the Russian lands. "Whoever does not pay," 
says a contemporary, "is led off to the Tatars, where he remains in 
slavery," The Tatar tribute-gatherers and their servants demanded gifts 
for themselves, besides which the population had to bear the expense 
of their upkeep. 

According to a folk song, there was no mercy even for the poorest 
of the poor. The collector took tribute from all:

<blockquote>
If a man doth money lack, 

From him his child they take, 

If a man doth children lack,

From him his wife they take,

And if a man doth helpmate lack, 

From him his very self they take.
</blockquote>

Only the princes and the clergy were exempt from such exactions. 

Revolts broke out against the Tatars in many Russian cities which 
were burdened by these tributes, but many Russian princes, fearing to 
lose their principalities, helped the Tatars to suppress these rebellions. 

Novgorod was not conquered by Batu, and when Tatar envoys came 
to this city to demand tribute, the Novgorod people refused to pay 
it. The Novgorod boyars, however, out of fear of the Tatars, compelled 
the people to submit. The Tatars made a census of the city’s population 
and imposed tribute upon them. The boyars placed the entire burden 
of these payments upon the poor people: they "made things easier 
for themselves and difficult for the common folk." 

The khans exempted the orthodox clergy from the payment 
of tribute and granted the metropolitans letters of investiture 
which protected their lands. The clergy therefore exhorted the poor to 
obey the Tatar feudal lords. The toiling population of Rūs thus suffered 
from a twofold oppression: that of the Tatars and the Russian feudal 
lords. 

Only one Russian prince did not go to the Horde to pay homage to 
Batu - Daniel Romanovich of Galich. But when Daniel received a stern 
command from the khan to appear before him, he had no option but 
to obey. Batu received him graciously. "O, what gall and wormwood 
is Tatar honour," exclaims the annalist in this coimeotion. Daniel 
purchased the salvation of his principality at the price of his own self
humiliation but he did not resign himself to his subservient position. 
On his return from the Horde he began to prepare for a struggle, building new cities and fortifying the old ones. He entered into a league 
with Hungary and appealed to the Pope for help against the enemy who 
was threatening all Europe. To win the support of the Pope Daniel even 
agreed to recognize him as the head of the Russian church. The Pope, 
on his part, recognized Daniel as king. But no one in Western Europe 
wanted to go to the aid of the Russians. Daniel thereupon severed relations with the Pope. When the Tatars learned of Daniel’s preparations, 
they demanded that all the fortifications in the land of Galich-Volhynsk 
be razed. Kholm, which was strongly fortified, refused to comply with 
the demand of the Tatars; all the other fortresses were, however, demolished. 

The devastation wrought by the Tatars arrested the economic 
development of the Russian lands for a long time. "The blood of our 
fathers and brothers has drenched the land like water," a contemporary says; "many of our brothers and children have been taken into 
captivity; our villages are overrun by young forest; our glory is faded; our beauty has perished; our wealth has become the property of others; the fruits of our labour have been inherited by heathens; our land has 
fallen into the hands of aliens." Learning and culture declined. Many 
monuments of art and works of ancient Russian literature perished in 
the fires of Russian cities. 

===== The Golden Horde in the Second Half of the 13th and in the 14th Centuries =====
The empire of the Golden Horde included the lands of the 
Volga Bulgars, the Polovets steppe, the Northern Caucasus, Khoresm in 
Central Asia, and Western Siberia as far as the Irtysh. The Russian 
principalities were also subject to the khans of the Golden Horde. 
The Golden Horde built for themselves a capital named Sarai (meaning "palace") on the Lower Volga. 

Captive craftsmen constructed sumptuous palaces in Sarai for the 
Tatar khans, the walls of which were faced with beautiful coloured 
tiles. The city had a large market place which attracted merchants 
from Rūs, Persia and even Western Europe. Sarai was a temporary 
residence of the Tatar suzerains. The rest of the Tatars continued to 
lead a nomad life, and drove their herds over the vast steppes from the 
lower reaches of the Danube to Kazakhstan. The khans themselves 
did not live permanently in their capital, but most of the year led a 
nomad life. 

The Golden Horde was divided into several hordes or tribes, ruled 
by princes who were vassals of the khan. The khan never embarked on 
any undertaking without their advice and consent. These princes, 
and other feudal lords, exploited their own tribesmen, whose cattle 
and products they appropriated for themselves. The princes arrogated to themselves the right of imposing taxes on some of the conquered 
regions. Finally, many of the feudal lords completely alienated 
the land together with the conquered agricultural population, which 
was obliged to render services to the feudal lords and to work for them. 

At the end of the 13th century Prince Nogai, under whose rule 
was a large host of nomads, attained great power; he placed khans on the 
throne and deposed them. After the death of Nogai his horde fell apart. 

The Tatar nobility adopted much of the culture of the Persians, 
Chinese and other civilized peoples of Asia. In the 14th century the 
Tatar feudal lords embraced Islam and spread this religion among the 
Tatar masses. This served the Tatar feudal lords as a means of keeping 
their subjects in submission. At the same time it tended to strengthen 
the ties of the Golden Horde with the civilized countries of the East. 

Tatar domination also had a certain effect on the life and habits 
of the Russian feudal lords. The latter adopted the Eastern apparel 
of the Tatars (the Russian words: ''bashmak'', ''kaftan'', ''kushak'', ''kolpak'' - 
shoe, caftan, belt, cowl - are of eastern origin), their weapons and 
utensils. Some Tatar institutions existed in the Russian state for a long 
time. For instance, it was the Tatars who introduced the ''yami'', that is, stations where horses were kept for the use of the khan’s officials. This practice endured in Russia for several centuries. The Tatar conquerors, however, 
could not exert an appreciable cultural 
influence on the Russians because they 
themselves were at a considerably lower 
level of social, economic and cultural 
development. Whereas agriculture had 
developed among the Russians far back 
in ancient times, primitive nomad herding still prevailed among the Tatars. 

The Tatar depredations ruined the agricultural areas and led to a general economic decline of the country. The Tatar 
yoke seriously affected all aspects of 
Russian life. The tax collections made for 
the khans, the freebootery of Tatar officials and other agents of the khans, and 
the raids of Tatar detachments which, in 
the beginning, were an almost annual occurrence, ruined the Russian people and 
retarded the economic, political and 
cultural progress of the country. The 
Russian people bravely defended their independence, and waged a 
valiant struggle, unaided, against the rapacious khans, thus shielding 
Western Europe from the Tatar-Mongolian invasions. As Marx said, 
the Tatar yoke not only oppressed, it outraged and consumed the 
very soul of the people who had become its victims. 

==== Transcaucasia and Central Asia under the Rule of the Mongols ====

===== Conquest of Transcaucasia by the Tatars =====
Simultaneously 
with their conquest of the Russian principalities, the Tatars seized 
the lands of Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan. "As numerous as 
locusts," the Tatars overran the mountains and valleys of Transcaucasia 
and the Caucasus. When cities were captured all the adult males were 
massacred with the exception of the craftsmen, who were turned into 
slaves. The Tatar warriors shared the women and children among 
themselves. The country was divided among the Tatar princes. The 
impregnable mountain fortresses were occupied by the Tatars. Resistance to the conquerors in Transcaucasia was offered principally by the people. The Armenian and Georgian princes, like the Russian princes, 
hurried to pay homage to Batu. He gave them letters of investiture, 
but demanded tribute and military tolls. A census was taken in Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia, similar to that made in Rūs. The Tatar 
taxgatherers, according to a contemporary, "demanded exorbitant 
taxes, thereby reducing the people to poverty and tortured and tormented them; those who hid were found and put to death." The impecunious 
had their children taken from them and sold to foreign traders. The 
princes co-operated with the Tatars and, as an annalist says, "plundered 
and robbed the poor and on the proceeds of these exactions arrayed 
themselves in costly clothes, and ate and drank and conducted 
themselves boastfully." The Armenian and Georgian clergy, who 
were also exempted by Batu from the payment of taxes, supported 
his rule. 

In this way all of Transcaucasia fell under Tatar domination. And 
here, as in Rūs, the peasants were doubly oppressed by the Tatars and 
their own feudal lords. 

===== Central Asia under Mongol Rule =====
Central Asia, the greater part of 
which, after the death of Genghis Khan, formed part of the Chagatai 
''ulus'' (division), gradually began to recover from the ruthless desolation 
to which it was subjected by the Mongol invasion. Trade and the crafts 
came to life again in Samarkand and Bokhara. But here too the exactions 
of the Mongol rulers made themselves felt. The local feudal landlords 
alone were exempted from these payments; the Mongol khans and their 
sons granted them special charters and forbade them to be molested. 
The burden of taxes and servitude was borne by the poor — the peasants 
and the craftsmen, who in addition had to pay for the upkeep of the 
Tatar officials. The craftsmen had to deliver their wares — weapons, 
fabrics, etc. — free of charge to the treasury. These extortions and 
obligations were so burdensome that they led to a widespread uprising 
in Bokhara (1238). The revolt was headed by an artisan, a maker of 
sieves, by the name of Makhmud Tarabi, who lived in the village of 
Tarab near Bokhara (whence he received his surname). The revolt 
spread among the city craftsmen and the peasants of the outlying rural 
districts and was directed both against the Tatar rulers and the local 
feudal lords. The Tatars were driven out of Bokhara. Makhmud took 
possession of the city and drove all the feudal lords and the rich people 
out of it. The Tatar and Bokhara feudal lords united against the rebels. 
At first they suffered a serious defeat. The peasants, armed with hatchets, pursued and killed the fleeing enemy. But Makhmud was killed 
during the fighting and in spite of partial successes, the uprising was 
crushed. 

=== The Struggle against German and Swedish Feudal Lords ===

==== Seizures by the German Feudal Lords in the Baltic ====

===== Advance Eastward by the German Knights =====
While Russia was 
being attacked by Mongol hordes in the east, German and Swedish 
crusaders in the west formed a new and grave menace. 

In the 12th century, German knighthood, in quest of new lands 
and serfs, began to advance eastward. The southern coast of the Baltic 
Sea from the Vistula to the mouth of the Elba was populated at the 
time by the Western Slavs. The Germans attacked the Slavonic 
lands, built castles on them, baptized the Slavs with fire and 
sword, and made them their serfs. Gradually all the Slavonic lands 
east of the Elba as far as Poland and Lithuania were seized by the 
Germans. Part of the Slav population was exterminated, and the survivors reduced to serfdom. The Slavonic River Sprava was renamed the 
Spree, the Slavonic Branibor (battle-forest) was called Brandenburg, 
the Slavonic Pomorye became Pomerania, and the Slavonic city of 
Kolebreg, ''i.e.'', coastal city, became known as Kolberg. 

After their seizure of the Western Slavonic lands, the German knights 
turned their attention to the eastern and southern shores of the Baltic 
Sea. This was the land of the Lithuanian tribes, and their neighbours 
the Livi (hence the name Liflandia or Livonia), while to the north lived 
the Esths (Esthland, or Esthonia). The entire land inhabited by these 
tribes was called Livonia. The Litovtsi-Prussi, Polab Slavs and Slav-Obodriti were exterminated by the Germans, and their lands seized. 

The territory on the Western Dvina was the fief of the Polotsk (Russian) princes, to whom the inhabitants paid tribute. The tribes that 
lived in the north were subject to Novgorod. 

===== The Order of Knights of the Sword =====
In the 12th century German 
merchants appeared in the Baltic region to buy furs, and set up a trading 
settlement near the mouth of the Western Dvina. The Germans used 
Christianity as a means of gaining a firmer footing on alien soil. 
Missionaries were sent to Livonia to preach the religion. Their mission 
not proving successful the Germans, with the support of the Pope, 
declared a crusade against the Livonians. The merchants of the northern 
German cities, interested in the conquest of Livonia, furnished the 
crusaders with ships. 

When the bishop appointed to the diocese of Livonia arrived with 
a body of crusaders, the Livonians said to him: "Send your troops back; 
convince us with words and not with cudgels." The German knights defeated the Livonians in battle, but the bishop’s horse carried him into the ranks of the enemy and he was killed. The Germans sacked 
the country mercilessly and forcibly baptized the Livonians. The new 
bishop, Albert, realized that the people would not be brought to their 
knees by sporadic raids of the crusaders. He therefore built the fortified 
city of Riga (1201) at the mouth of the Western Dvina on the land of 
the Livi (the Letts) and settled it with German colonists. In 1202 he 
founded, with the sanction of the Pope, a special knightly order, called 
the Knights of the Sword, the members of which were to live in Livonia 
and to spread Christianity by means of the sword. Later this Order 
was known as the Livonian. The head of the Order was called the Master; its members were the small landed German gentry who hoped to
become rich in the conquered land. The knights built castles in Livonia, 
forcibly baptized the population, and made serfs of them; those who 
resisted were killed. Protected by the knights, German merchants 
settled in Livonia for purposes of trade, and founded cities there. 

The subjugation of the Baltic States by the German knights was 
accompanied by incredible cruelty. When the Germans set foot on the 
land of an insubordinate tribe, they divided their troops into several 
detachments which swept through the countryside burning and ravaging everything in their path, massacring all the males, carrying off 
the women and children into slavery, and seizing all the cattle. The 
people sought safety in the woods; during the winter they attempted 
to cross the icebound sea, but perished from cold and hunger. The following is a German chronicler’s account of how the German knights 
dealt with the Oesel islanders. 

"They kept beating them all the way to the village, pursued the 
fugitives through streets and in their homes, dragged them out of the 
houses and murdered them; those who attempted to defend themselves 
from rooftops and woodpiles were also seized and put to death. … 
From the village the people were pursued into the open field, where 
they were slaughtered, and across the field to the sacred grove, and this 
sacred grove turned scarlet with their blood, … More than 500 dead 
remained on the scene of battle, and many others were killed in the 
fields, on the roads and in other places." 

The disunited Livonian tribes were unable to withstand the well
organized Order. Having fallen into oppressive slavery, they appealed 
to the Polotsk princes for help. The latter had contented themselves 
with the exaction of a small tribute from the Livonians; their rule was 
therefore considered lenient as compared with that of the Germans. 
Several times the Polotsk princes attempted, jointly with the Livonians, 
to drive out the conquerors, but the knights were better armed; 
they had missile engines with which the Russians were still 
unfamiliar. All the offensives undertaken by the Polotsk princes 
ended in failure. 

After subduing the Livonians, the knights began to spread their rule over Russian lands. The population of the Polotsk principality 
strongly resisted the German knights. At one time the bishop of Riga 
even paid tribute to the Polotsk princes. One of the lesser Polotsk 
princes, Vyachko, especially distinguished himself in his resolute struggle for independence. He fought on heroically even after his own city 
had been captured and burnt by the Germans. In 1224 the knights 
attacked the Russian city of Yuriev, where Prince Vyachko together 
with the Esths sat firmly entrenched. The Germans surrounded Yuriev 
with siege engines, brought up a wooden siege-tower and began to undermine the city walls. When part of the wall crumpled, the tower 
was moved to the breach. But the besieged stubbornly refused to surrender. When the Germans started to storm the city, the besieged rolled 
red-hot wheels out through the gap in the broken wall and set the siege
tower on fire. But the Germans broke into the city through this very 
opening. Yuriev was taken and a massacre began. The Germans surrounded the city and did not let anyone out alive. Prince Vyachko 
also perished. The Germans renamed the city of Yuriev — Dorpat 
(now Tartu). 

After the death of Bishop Albert, the Germans suffered a number of 
defeats. The knights were especially discomfited when they attempted 
to invade the land of Lithuania. The Knights of the Sword began looking for allies. 

===== The Teutonic Order =====
Next to Livonia there existed another 
German Order, the Teutonic. Between the Niemen and the Vistula 
lay the land of the Lithuanian tribe of Prussi. The warlike Prussi made 
devastating raids upon the neighbouring Polish lands. The Polish 
feudal lords, unable to cope with the Prussi, asked the German Teutonic 
Order for aid. The Teutonic Order had been founded at the end of the 
12th century to fight the Mohammedans in Palestine. With the sanction 
of the Pope, the Teutonic knights readily agreed to take up their abode 
in the land of the Prussi. The latter, who lived in small tribes under 
different chiefs, were not able to oppose the knights by a united force. 
The Germans, on the other band, were a compact, disciplined force. 
Before long the little towns of the petty Prussi princes were conquered. 
"By the end of the 13th century," Marx says, "that flourishing country 
was transformed into a desert; forests and swamps appeared in the 
place of villages and cultivated fields; some of the people were killed, 
others were carried off, and the rest were compelled to migrate to 
Lithuania."<ref>''Archives of Marx and Engels'', Russ. ed., Vol. V, 1938, p. 344.</ref>

The knights built castles and cities on the land of the Prussi and 
began to attract colonists from Germany. The Germans who aided the 
Teutonic Order in its wars against the Prussi received grants of land and built new castles. And so ever greater numbers of German colonists poured into the land of the Prussi. The numerous outbreaks of the Prussi were suppressed because of the lack of unity among these people. 

Both Orders (that of the Knights of the Sword and the Teutonic) 
united in 1237 with the aim of prosecuting their conquests jointly in 
the Baltic. 

The merging of these two Orders appreciably strengthened the German 
knights and constituted a great danger to the Russian lands. Novgorod 
and Pskov were threatened. But the Russian people had to wage an 
arduous struggle simultaneously against the Germans and the Swedes. 
In the 13th century the people of Novgorod and Pskov saved the Russian lands from conquest by the German and Swedish feudal lords. 

==== Struggle of Novgorod and Pskov against the Swedish and German Feudal Lords ====

===== The Victory on the Neva over the Swedes =====
For a long time 
the Swedes had been trying to seize the water-route from the Gulf of 
Finland to the land of Novgorod, which would give them control over 
the entire trade with Eastern Europe. 

In 1240 the Swedes launched a campaign on the Neva under the 
command of Count Birger, who governed the Swedish kingdom at 
that time. But no sooner had the Swedes landed near the mouth of 
the Neva than they were attacked by the Novgorod troops under the 
command of the Novgorod Grand Prince Alexander, son of Yaroslav. 
Alexander was one of the most outstanding princes of his time; he 
pursued a very cautious and wise policy with the Tatar khans and won 
the respect of the Golden Horde. He was also a brave and skillful military 
commander. "While conquering he was unconquerable," a contemporary 
said of him. In the battle of the Neva against the Swedes, fought 
under his command, the Novgorod people displayed great valour. One 
of them, Gavrila Oleksich, in pursuing the enemy, rode his horse over 
the gangplank right onto an enemy’s ship. Thrown into the water together with his horse, he swam to the bank and once more rushed into 
the fray. Misha of Novgorod and his men sank three Swedish vessels. 
Savva made his way to Birger’s tent and cut down the pole which supported it; the unexpected collapse of the tent in view of the combatants 
inspired the Russian troops. The Swedes were utterly defeated; Birger 
himself was almost killed by a blow from Alexander’s lance, but saved 
his life by fleeing to his ships. The men of Novgorod pursued the retreating foe. For this victory on the Neva Prince Alexander won his 
honorific epithet of Nevsky. 

Alexander was an imperious prince who realized that a strong rule 
was necessary in time of war. The Novgorod boyars, however, tried to 
limit his power. Soon after the victory on the Neva he came into conflict with the boyars and left Novgorod. 

The Germans took advantage of Alexander's absence, seized the 
ancient Russian city of Izborsk and advanced on Pskov. Some of the 
boyars in the city proved to be traitors. Pskov was captured by a detachment of knights. The Germans invaded the land of Novgorod, built 
the fortress of Koporye, and made themselves masters of the land 
within thirty kilometres of Novgorod.

===== The Battle on the Ice =====
Under these circumstances the Novgorod ''veche'' demanded Alexander’s return. He promptly answered the 
call and arrived at Novgorod with his retinue of warriors and an auxiliary Suzdal detachment. He marched out and captured and destroyed the Koporye fortress. In 1242 he marched on Pskov, routed 
the German garrison and liberated the city. Then he invaded the 
lands of the Order. A powerful German army came out to meet him. 
The knights boasted: "We’ll take Prince Alexander with our bare 
hands." The opening joust between the skirmish lines was not in 
Novgorod’s favour. Alexander held a position of vantage on Lake 
Chudskoye (Lake Peipus). There, on the ice, on April 5, 1242, a battle 
took place which went down in history as the ''Battle on the Ice''. The 
Germans attacked in their usual "pig’s snout" formation, that is, 
a closed wedge. The point of the wedge was formed by a heavily armed 
body of horsed knights, fringing a body of foot soldiers, armed 
with spears and swords. The rear and flanks were protected by a 
detachment of mounted knights. The battle was, in the words of a 
chronicler, "a furious one"; the ice was stained with blood. The Novgorod men pursued the Germans for seven kilometres, killed 500 
knights and took 50 prisoners. After this defeat the Germans 
hastened to conclude peace. They renounced Pskov and all their 
other conquests. 

The Battle on the Ice ended the offensive of the German knights 
against Prussian soil and saved it from the fate that overtook Livonia. 
The knights were driven back from the Russian frontier. This victory 
put a halt to the movement of the German feudal lords against Russian 
lands. The Russian people saved the Lithuanians, Esthonians and 
Latvians from destruction by the Germans. 

=== The Grand Duchy of Lithuania ===

==== Formation of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania ====
As economic ties among the various regions in Eastern Europe 
developed in the 14th century the petty feudal domains began to 
unite into large feudal states. The need for defence against external 
enemies accelerated this process. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania was 
formed in this way and it incorporated not only the small Lithuanian 
but also the neighbouring Slavonic principalities. 

===== Union of the Lithuanian Tribes =====
The Lithuanians, in the 12th 
century, had already emerged from the clan system. They broke up 
into separate tribes which were headed by petty chieftains, called 
''kunigasi'', who became prominent because of their wealth. These chieftains possessed large numbers of cattle and slaves and maintained a 
numerous retinue. The chieftains and their warriors lived in fortified towns deep within the forest thickets. The union of the scattered Lithuanian tribes was hastened by the danger of attack by the German 
knights. 

In the middle of the 13th century Mendowg was the most outstanding of the Lithuanian petty princes. By violence and cunning 
he removed the other princes, taking all the power into his own hands. 
He also seized several Russian frontier lands. His capital was the 
Russian city of Novgorodok. To win over the German knights Mendowg ostensibly adopted Christianity and even ceded a part of Lithuania to the Order. In exchange the Pope bestowed upon him the 
title of king. But when Mendowg became stronger, he renounced 
Christianity and his royal title, and at the head of a Lithuanian army 
invaded the domains of the Order, and inflicted a severe defeat upon 
the knights. Mendowg and his army invaded the land of the Prussi, 
ravaged it and the neighbouring regions of Poland as well. By consolidating the union of Lithuania, Mendowg aroused the hostility 
of the other Lithuanian princes, who assassinated him (1263). 

The consolidation of the Lithuanian tribes into a single state, 
which had begun under Mendowg, continued. The tribe of Lithuanians 
was the nucleus around which this slate was formed. It was gradually 
joined by other kindred tribes, with the exception of the Prussi, who 
had been conquered by the Teutonic knights and had in part been 
destroyed, and in part Teutonized. The land of the Prussi-Lithuanians 
became the land of the Germans-Prussians. 

The Lithuanian state became especially strong in the beginning 
of the 14th century, under Gedymin (1316-1341), who adopted the 
title of Grand Duke of Lithuania. He already had a well-disciplined 
army which replaced the former popular levy. Gedymin’s troops were 
acquainted with siegecraft, the use of siege engines and the art of assault. Castles after the German style were built to defend the land. 

After the Lithuanian grand dukes had united Lithuania, they 
began to extend their power over the neighbouring Russian lands. 
The population of these regions regarded their annexation to Lithuania 
as a deliverance from the Tatar yoke. Polotsk had fallen under the 
influence of Lithuania as far back as the time of Mendowg. Gedymin 
further extended his dominions over Vitebsk, Minsk and several other 
lands. Gedymin was followed by his son Olgierd (1345-1377), who 
became the Grand Duke of Lithuania. He was "smooth-tongued" as 
the Russian chronicles put it — a sly and crafty sovereign who knew 
where his advantage lay and adroitly executed his designs. Under 
him the Lithuanians seized Kiev, the land of Chernigov-Seversk 
and the greater part of the land of Volhynia. The Smolensk principality 
was annexed by the Lithuanians after Olgierd. In this way a large, 
powerful Lithuanian state, the capital of which was Vilnius, was 
created. The state of Lithuania included many Russian lands. Indeed, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was essentially a Russo-Lithuanian state ruled by Lithuanian princes and Lithuanian ''pans''. 

Thus in the 14th century the Russian lands were divided into 
three parts: Northeastern Rūs (the lands of Vladimir-Suzdal and 
Novgorod) which was under the power of the Golden Horde, Southwestern Rūs (the principalities of Kiev, Chernigov, Smolensk, Polotsk, 
Vladimir-Volhynsk) which had come under the power of Lithuania, 
and the principality of Galich, which had been conquered by Poland 
in the middle of the 14th century. The ancient Russian nationality 
was similarly broken up into three divisions: Northeastern, Northwestern and Southwestern. Each division lived its own economic, political 
and cultural life. By the 15th century the Eastern Slavs formed three 
great peoples, each of which had its own language. The Slavs dwelling 
between the Oka and the Volga, and north of the Volga, with their political centre of Vladimir, formed the Velikoruss (Great Russian) or, 
as we now call them, the Russian nation; the Slavs living between 
the Pripyat and the Western Dvina, who were subject to Lithuania, 
formed the Byelorussian nation; in the South Russian lands, the 
centre of which was Kiev, the Ukrainian nation was formed. 

===== The Union of Lithuania and Poland =====
Olgierd’s successor 
to the Lithuanian throne was his son Jagiello (1377-1392). During 
his reign Lithuania united with her neighbour, Poland. It was the 
need for union in the struggle against the Teutonic Order that prompted both countries to join forces. Furthermore, Jagiello hoped by this 
means to increase his own power within the country. The Polish ''pans'', 
finding it beyond their strength to fight against the Germans, proposed 
a matrimonial alliance between Jagiello and the Polish Queen, Yadviga, 
and thus unite Lithuania and Poland into a single state. To consolidate 
the union, Jagiello was to convert his subjects to Catholicism, which 
was the dominant religion in Poland. In 1385 a treaty was concluded, 
sealing the union (ujiia) of Lithuania and Poland. Jagiello simul
taneously became the Grand Duke of Lithuania and the king of Poland. 

The union, however, was opposed by the Lithuanians, who did 
not want to lose their independence. Jagiello’s cousin, the ambitious 
and talented Witowt, stirred up an insurrection in order to gain Lithuanian’s independence. Jagiello garrisoned the principal Lithuanian 
cities with Polish troops, but the inhabitants killed the Poles. Witowt 
(1392-1430) was given the title of Grand Duke of Lithuania, but 
he undertook not to sever relations with Poland and to accept Jagiello’s suzerainty.

===== Rout of the German Knights =====
The union of Lithuania and 
Poland was prompted primarily by the danger of attack by the German 
knights. Having conquered the lands of the Prussi, the Teutonic knights 
strove to extend their power over the rest of Lithuania. More and more 
adventurers, greedy for plunder and land, kept coming to their aid from Germany. In the 14th century the Germans conquered the lands of the Lithuanian tribe of Zhmuds, whom they had already attacked 
on other occasions. The Zhmuds lived along the lower reaches of 
the Niemen and were neighbours of the Prussi. The cruelties and 
extortions of the knights drove the Zhmuds to desperation and caused 
them to revolt time and again. They came out of the forests in throngs, 
attacked the newly built castles, set them on fire, massacred the garrisons or carried the men off as captives. They appealed to Witowt 
and other princes for help. "Listen to us, who are oppressed and tortured," 
they wrote. "The Order has brought us to such a point that we 
must either roam o’er the world or become bandits if we wish to exist. 
The knights have taken from us all the fruits of the earth and the 
honey of beehives, they neither permit us to kill animals nor catch 
fish nor trade with our neighbours. Every year they carry off our children as hostages, our elders have been carried off to Prussia, others 
with all their kin they have burned at the stake. Remember that we 
are people, and not beasts." 

The advance of the Germans threatened the Lithuanian Grand 
Duchy and the neighbouring Russian principalities with the loss of 
their independence. Witowt pursued a dual policy in relation to the 
Germans: at times he signed peace treaties with them, and at others 
supported the insurgent Zhmuds. However, the German menace 
compelled Witowt in 1410, jointly with Jagiello, to come out openly 
against the knights. Russian, Byelorussian and Ukrainian regiments — 
the Smolensk, Polotsk, Kiev and others — comprised the main force of 
the united army. The encounter with the enemy took place in July 
between the villages of Grünewald and Tannenberg. In the beginning 
success was with the knights, but the situation was saved by the daring and reckless bravery of the Smolensk warriors. The Germans 
suffered a crushing defeat, losing 40,000 in killed and 15,000 in prisoners. The grand master of the Order himself fell in the battle. The 
victory of Grünewald, which was won thanks to the Russian regiments, 
halted the German advance eastward. From that time the Teutonic 
Order dropped into decay and lost all military and political significance. The significance of the Livonian Order also dwindled at the 
same time. 

==== Social System of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania ====

===== The Lithuanian Feudal Lords =====
The Grand Duchy of Lithuania 
was a feudal state, dominated by the powerful landowners. The foremost of them was the grand duke. He owned extensive "sovereign" 
lands. The peasants living on these estates worked under the corvée, 
and paid the grand duke quitrent in money and in kind. The peasants who lived on the grand duke’s lands were divided into freemen and bondsmen. The latter, if they tried to run away, were hunted and 
caught and returned to their master as fugitives. Besides the peasants 
the grand duke had free servants who lived on his estates and were 
obliged to render military service instead of the corvée and the payment 
of quitrent. Gradually these servants formed a group of small landowners called the ''szlachta''. In addition to the grand duke there were other 
feudal lords in the Lithuanian duchy — princes and ''pans'' (nobles), and 
the church. These feudal lords were the supreme sovereigns on their 
estates. Most of the peasants living on their estates were serfs and had 
no right to transfer themselves to any other landowner. The rich feudal lords, like the grand duke, had free servants living on their land, 
and these were obliged to "render military service on horse and fully 
armed." Thus the population of the Lithuanian Grand Duchy, both 
Lithuanian and Slavonic, was sharply divided into two classes: the feudal landowners and the peasants whom they exploited. 

Possessing as they did large numbers of peasants and armed servants, 
the Lithuanian feudal lords were very powerful. The Grand Duke of 
Lithuania had to take their wishes into consideration. He had a special council of the great feudal lords (called the ''pany-rada''), who sat 
in state with him. On more important occasions all the leading feudal 
lords convened at a general assembly (the ''diet'').

===== Cities in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania =====
The Western Dvina, 
which flowed through the Lithuanian Grand Duchy, was a convenient 
route for trade with the Baltic countries. The Grand Duchy of 
Lithuania therefore had many rich trading cities. Outstanding among 
these, besides Vilnius, were the old Russian cities of Polotsk, Minsk 
(first mentioned in 1147), and Berestye. The cities on the Western 
Dvina enjoyed a specially flourishing trade after the Grünewald victory, which gave the Lithuanian merchants access to the Baltic Sea. 
The grand dukes of Lithuania derived a large income from this trade, 
and therefore tried to encourage it in every possible way. They freed 
the merchants in the big cities from many obligations and granted 
them self-government.

===== Byelorussian, Ukrainian and Russian Lands in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania =====
The Lithuanian Grand Duchy was 
ethnically composed of Lithuanian and Slavonic lands. The latter 
included the lands of Byelorussia, Ukraine and Russia proper. The higher culture of the Russians, Ukrainians and Byelorussians 
exerted considerable influence on the Lithuanians. The faith of the 
Greek Orthodox church became widespread among the Lithuanians. 
State documents were written in the Russian language. ''Russkaya Pravda'' influenced Lithuanian law. After the union with Poland the 
situation changed. The Lithuanian ''pans'', who had joined the Polish ''pans'', 
began to persecute the Russian population in the duchy. The adoption 
of Catholicism by the Lithuanian feudal lords marked the beginning of the persecution of the Russian Orthodox religion and Russian national culture. The Russian (Orthodox) feudal lords were deprived of 
the right to occupy any state posts in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. 
Nor were they admitted to the grand duke’s ''rada'' (council). Many of 
them adopted Polish ways and manners and embraced Catholicism, 
but the people clung to their native language and culture. When therefore the Russian state came into being in Northeastern Rūs the striving to unite with kindred Russian people was evinced by the Byelorussians and the Ukrainians no less strongly than by the Russians proper, all of whom were under Lithuanian domination.

=== The Grand Principality of Vladimir ===

==== The Principalities of Northeastern Rūs ====

===== Feudal Tenure in the 14th and 15th Centuries =====
The 14th 
century marked the beginning of the union of the principalities of 
Northeastern Rūs into a single Russian state. 

The main occupation of the people in Northeastern Rūs in the 
13th and 14th centuries was husbandry. Important auxiliary branches 
of economy were fishing, hunting, and collecting the honey of wild 
bees. In some places salt was obtained by evaporation from subterranean springs. This was an article of trade with neighbouring regions. 
Theirs was a natural form of economy, that is, all articles of prime necessity (food, clothing, wooden articles) were made at home. Trade 
was poorly developed. People resorted to the market mainly for imported goods — articles that were not made at home. The chief wares were 
foreign goods which, because of their high cost, were beyond the reach 
of the masses and were purchased only by the feudal lords. The unfertile regions bought corn from lands where there was a surplus. In some 
places a low grade of iron ore was smelted; iron and ironware were 
also sometimes traded. Such was the commerce between the regions. 
With trade but poorly developed there was little money in circulation. 

In the 14th century most of the land belonged to the feudal lords, 
both clerical and lay, ''viz.'', the princes, their boyars and servants, the 
monasteries and other church institutions. The lands belonging to 
the feudal lords as their absolute property were called ''votchini'', or 
patrimonial estates. 
On their patrimonies the feudal lords were petty sovereigns. They had the right to hold court and sit in judgment on all the people 
living on their lands; they could inflict corporal punishment, and 
even usurped the right of executing their subjects. They collected taxes and tolls from the people living on their patrimonies. The local 
prince could not interfere in the arrangements of the feudal lord, neither could he send to him his judges or his taxgatherers. The boyars 
and other feudal lords gave grants of land to their men in return for 
military service (fiefs). The feudal lords needed such a military retinue not only for purposes of war but also to keep the working population on their patrimonies in subordination. 

The feudal lords endeavoured to increase the population of their 
patrimonies at the expense of the free peasantry. The monasteries were 
especially energetic in this respect. 

Monasteries were usually founded in remote, sparsely populated 
places. The monks employed peasants to make forest clearings and 
prepare tillage grounds. The monasteries colonized vast uninhabited 
areas, thereby advancing the economic development of the country. 
But this colonization by the monasteries was attended by ruthless exploitation of the peasants who settled on the monastery lands. If there 
were any free peasants living near monastery estates, the monks contrived to wrest their land from them and compel them to work for the 
monastery. 

Rich, populous monasteries acquired great political influence. 
In the 14th century the monk Sergei Radonezhsky founded the Monastery of the Troitsa (Trinity) near Moscow [the city that eventually 
sprang up around its wall is now called Zagorsk]. This once poor 
monastery, built in a remote forest, later became the richest of all the 
monasteries of Northeastern Rūs. 

===== Peasants in the 14th and 15th Centuries =====
The peasants living 
on the land of a feudal lord performed all the work on his estate. They 
hauled timber for him, built the lord’s manor, put up a palisade 
around his domain, dammed the ponds, ploughed the land, sowed, 
reaped and carted the rye to the lord’s household, mowed hay, baked 
bread, brewed beer, spun flax furnished by the landowner, drove 
palings into the river for fishing, and helped him when hunting the 
bear, fox, elk, etc. Such were the feudal services they had to render their lords. These services were called the corvée. 

Besides the corvée, the peasants had to pay quitrent, the ''obrok''. 
On important holidays the peasants brought their lord "whatever they 
had on hand": eggs, cheese, baked bread and a cow, or several sheep 
from each village. Sometimes the corvée was completely replaced by 
the quitrent paid in rye and oats. When the landowner came to a village, the peasants had to feed him and his entire suite, offer them "beer 
in plenty, bread and drinks, fish and meat in plenty, and oats and hay for the horses in plenty." The peasants had to render all these 
diverse, burdensome services 
without protest, because the feudal lord was master of the land 
on which they lived. 

It was difficult for a peasant 
to get away from the feudal 
lord. If he left, he forfeited all 
his property. Furthermore, the 
landowners had agreed among 
themselves not to take in peasants who had left their masters. 

It often happened that the land
owners retained their peasants 
forcibly. If, however, a peasant 
did succeed in getting away, he 
would usually fall into the same 
kind of thralldom under some 
other landowner. 

The peasants lived in small, 
isolated villages. Each peasant 
family was a kind of separate little collective-producing unit. It was 
difficult for them to unite for joint action. Occasional attempts at resistance were easily crushed. 

However, there were lands that did not belong to the feudal lords. 
These were inhabited by so-called state peasants, the ''chorniye'', who were 
more or less free. These peasants formed communities or, as they were 
then called, ''volosts''. Every peasant who belonged to a ''volost'' had his 
own allotment and hay field, but the forests and other lands were the 
common property of the entire ''volost''. But even these seemingly free 
peasants were actually in feudal dependence on their prince. They not 
only had to pay him tribute, but also had to do all kinds of work under 
the corvée: graze the prince’s horses, mow his hay, help the prince’s 
hunters and fishermen, feed not only the retinue of the prince, but 
also his dogs and hunting birds (falcons). 

===== Towns in the 14th and 15th Centuries =====
So long as a 
natural economy predominated, the crafts and trade could not develop 
to any great extent in the towns. Foreign trade was in the hands of the 
frontier cities — Novgorod and Pskov. In other large cities, such as 
Moscow and Tver, there were small groups of rich merchants who made 
their fortunes by buying and reselling foreign fabrics and other valuable merchandise. The local marts were poorly connected. However, 
economic intercourse steadily grew. At the end of the 14th century 
Moscow was already a commercial city of considerable importance.

===== Splitting up into Appanages =====
In the beginning of the 
14th century Northeastern Rūs 
was broken up into several large 
principalities. The largest of 
them were: Tver, Moscow, Ryazan and, somewhat later, Nizhni 
Novgorod. Each of these principalities was ruled by a descendant of Vsevolod the "Large 
Nest." 

The prevailing low stage of 
development of money-commodity relations between the 
various regions comprising the 
principalities hindered the establishment of close economic ties. 
And, consequently, strong political ties could not be established either. Each large principality was divided into appanages, that is, into small domains belonging to the various members of the prince's family. These appanages 
passed from father to son through inheritance. 

The appanages increased in number and dwindled in size as the 
princely families multiplied. Each prince tried to enlarge his appanage 
at the expense of his neighbour. This led to interminable struggles 
among the rival princes over the possession of land and cities. 

The senior member of the family — the father or oldest brother — 
bore the title of grand prince and was considered the chief prince. But 
as a matter of fact his authority over the junior members of the family 
was very slight. The appanage princes, as the younger princes were 
called, were absolutely independent in their own domains. "You attend to your patrimony, and I shall attend to mine," the grand prince 
said in his agreement with the appanage princes. The latter administered justice on their own appanages and collected their own taxes. 
Only in foreign policy was the appanage prince obliged to be "at one" 
with the grand prince and to come with his troops to his aid in case of war.

The government of the principality was simple. The principalities 
were not large. For instance, the Moscow principality at the end of 
the 13th century comprised three small towns besides Moscow. There 
were principalities which consisted of a single town and its rural environs. A painting of those days depicts the capital of the diminutive 
principality of Zaozerye, namely, the prince’s manor with its church 
and the adjacent village. Each prince directed both state affairs and 
his own economy. The prince’s troops consisted of boyars and the prince’s "free servants." Regiments of the appanage princes or their 
boyars joined the troops of the grand prince. The infantry was made up 
of a popular levy from the town and village population. On matters 
of prime importance the prince consulted with his boyars. Historians 
call such a conference the "boyar’s duma." 

The administration of various branches of the prince’s economy 
was entrusted to different boyars. The prince appointed lord lieutenants 
to administer the various regions. They did not receive any salary in 
money but took for themselves a part of the income and "were fed" 
at the expense of the population of the region, that is, they received 
products in kind. This system of administration was called ''kormleniye'' — subsistence. 

===== The Grand Principality of Vladimir =====
The numerous principalities into which Northeastern Rūs was divided were at first entirely 
disconnected. The constant danger of attack by the Golden Horde and 
the Grand Duchy of Lithuania compelled the population of the Russian 
principalities to join forces in the common struggle against the enemy. 
The Grand Principality of Vladimir became the centre around which 
the Russian principalities began to unite. It was the practice of the 
khan of the Golden Horde, according to an old custom, to appoint one 
of the Russian princes the "Grand Prince of Vladimir and of all Rūs," 
''i.e.'', the head of all others, and to endow him with a letter of investiture. The prince who bore this title annexed the city of Vladimir and 
its surrounding lands to his own domains. 

The need of defence against the Tatars helped to strengthen the power 
of the Grand Prince of Vladimir. An alliance of princes was formed 
under his leadership, the allies undertaking to help one another against 
the Tatars and other foreign enemies. They introduced uniform custom 
duties on the frontiers of their possessions. This was evidence of the fact 
that already in the 14th century the economic isolation of the feudal 
principalities was vanishing, a circumstance which favoured the prospects of consolidation. 

==== Novgorod and Pskov in the 14th and 15th Centuries ====
Novgorod occupied a special position in relation to the Grand Principality of Vladimir — "the chief Russian republic ruling in Northern Russia," as Marx wrote. Since the end of the 13th century Novgorod 
no longer elected its own princes. The Grand Prince of Vladimir was 
nominally considered the prince of Novgorod. When he assumed his 
office as ruler of Novgorod, he had to conform to the ancient custom of 
"kissing the cross" (''i.e.'', taking the oath), that he would observe the 
chartered liberties of Novgorod. The grand prince himself rarely came to Novgorod, but sent his lord lieutenants there. Actually Novgorod was governed by city magistrates elected from among the Novgorod 
boyars. 

In the 14th century Novgorod became an aristocratic feudal republic. The head of this republic was Novgorod’s leading feudal lord — 
the archbishop, who was elected by the ''veche''. The Novgorod archbishop 
owned immense estates and had his own troops. Nothing was done in 
Novgorod without the consent of the archbishop, who also negotiated 
with foreign envoys. He upheld the authority and prestige of the boyars 
in Novgorod in every way he could. 

All affairs were first considered at a council of the boyar elite, who 
assembled under the chairmanship of the archbishop. The merchants, 
who made their fortunes on fur deals and from their trade with the Hanse 
and Russian lands were another influential factor in Novgorod politics 
in the 14th and 15th centuries. The Novgorod merchants served as intermediaries between the boyars and the German merchants. They 
supported the boyars. 

The power of the boyars grew in proportion as their affluence increased. Their wealth was derived from the exploitation of the non-Russian population of Pomorye (the Maritime Region) and of the Russian 
peasants and craftsmen. A fierce class struggle was going on in Novgorod. In 1418 an uprising broke out here as a result of the oppression by 
the boyar usurers. A certain Stepanko seized hold of the boyar Daniel 
Ivanovich Bozhin on the street and began shouting: "Men, help me with 
this villain." A crowd gathered. The boyar was dragged to the Volkhov 
Bridge and thrown into the river, where he escaped drowning by a lucky 
chance. He caught Stepanko and dragged him to the torture chamber. 
At that some one struck the ''veche'' bell on the Torgovaya side. The crowd 
rushed to the street where Bozhin lived, plundered his house and moved 
on, sacking the homes of other boyars and saying: "They are our enemies." The boyars’ granaries were also pillaged. The boyars on the Sofiiskaya side armed themselves and repelled the assailants. From 
both sides people came running to the Volkhov Bridge armed and 
accoutred as though for war. Indeed some people had already been 
killed. But the Novgorod archbishop intervened, and accompanied 
by his prelates, hastened to the scene of battle. Being one of the 
wealthiest feudal lords of Novgorod, the archbishop was interested in 
the speediest termination of the outbreak. His intervention saved 
the boyars. 

In the middle of the 14th century Pskov became independent of 
Novgorod. At the ''veche'' the Pskov burghers elected their own city magistrates from among the Pskov boyars. Like Novgorod, Pskov was 
subject to the Grand Prince of Vladimir, who sent his lord lieutenants 
to that city. Here, as in Novgorod, a relentless class struggle was in 
progress.

=== The Rise of Moscow ===

==== Strengthening of the Moscow Principality ====

===== Moscow and Tver in the Beginning of the 14th Century =====
In the first quarter of the 14th century a bitter struggle for the Grand 
Principality of Vladimir broke out between two of the most powerful 
principalities of Southeastern Rūs — Tver and Moscow. Both of these 
principalities occupied a favourable geographic position. They were 
less open to attack by the Tatars since they were shielded on the southeast 
by other principalities, and afforded refuge to fugitives from the 
ravaged regions. The growth of productive forces in the Tver and 
Moscow principalities was more rapid than in the other regions of 
Northeastern Rūs. 

Tver was situated on the Volga at its confluence with the Tvertsa 
River. The city controlled the entire trade route from Novgorod to 
the Volga. Novgorod merchants travelled by the Tvertsa to Northeastern Rūs. The Volga was the trade route of Tver merchants dealing 
with eastern countries. 

Moscow was situated on the River Moskva, a tributary of the 
Oka. A direct road from the Upper Volga to the Oka passed through 
the Moscow principality. From here one could travel to the upper 
reaches of the Don, down to the Azov and the Black seas and to the 
Crimea for trade with the Italian trading colonies which existed there 
at the time. 

The advantage of Moscow lay in its central position, which enabled it to fight both against the Tatars and Lithuania, and also made 
it easier for Moscow to unite all the separate principalities of Northeastern Rūs. 

Moscow became the capital of a separate principality at the end 
of the 13th century after the establishment of the Tatar yoke. At that 
time the Moscow principality was very small, and comprised Moscow 
proper and two other cities — Ruza and Zvenigorod. In 1301 the Moscow 
prince, Daniel (son of Alexander Nevsky) took possession of Kolomna, 
which stands at the confluence of the Moskva and the Oka. In 1302 
he inherited the neighbouring principality of Pereyaslavl, to which 
Moscow had once been subject, and thus greatly added to Moscow’s 
power. Nevertheless Tver was the stronger at first. The Grand Prince 
of Tver, Mikhail Yaroslavich, in the beginning of the 14th century, 
received a letter of investiture from the Tatars bestowing upon him the 
Grand Principality of Vladimir.

The Tatars’ policy was to weaken Rūs and not allow any one prince 
to enhance his power at the expense of another. Uzbek Khan, one of 
the most powerful khans since Batu, fearing the growing power of the 
Grand Prince of Vladimir, supported the Moscow Prince Yuri Danilovich (1303-1325) against him. The khan gave his sister in marriage to 
Yuri and also placed Tatar troops at his disposal to fight against the 
Grand Prince of Tver. In spite of the Tatar help, Yuri suffered a severe 
defeat. His wife, Uzbek's sister, was taken prisoner. She died in captivity, and Yuri took advantage of this fact to accuse Mikhail before the 
khan of having poisoned her. He succeeded in having Mikhail sentenced 
to death, while he himself received the cherished letter of investiture 
to the grand principality. But he himself soon fell at the hands of one 
of Mikhail’s sons. Uzbek executed Yuri’s murderer, but nevertheless 
bestowed the grand principality on another of Mikhail’s sons, Prince 
Alexander Mikhailovich. 

===== Ivan Danilovich Kalita =====
In Moscow Yuri was succeeded by his 
brother, Ivan Danilovich (1325-1341), surnamed Kalita, meaning 
"moneybag," on account of his wealth. Ivan Kalita was a shrewd 
and crafty sovereign. He had no scruples about the means he employed 
to achieve his ends and to strengthen Muscovy. He was greatly assisted 
by the church. The Russian metropolitans at that time resided in Vladimir, and not in Kiev, which had been ruined by the Tatars. Yuri 
Danilovich and Ivan Kalita succeeded in winning over the metropolitan 
Peter. He transferred his seat from Vladimir to Moscow, and ever since 
Moscow has been the religious centre of Russia. In the person of the 
metropolitan the Moscow prince acquired a powerful ally. The church 
used all its religious influence to consolidate the power of the Moscow 
princes. The threat of the metropolitan’s malediction was sufficient 
to compel the neighbouring princes to submit to Moscow’s will. Furthermore, the church possessed vast populated lands and was in a position to help the Moscow princes with money and troops. 

While endeavouring to win the sympathy and support of the church, 
Ivan Kalita at the same time did not grudge his amassed riches when 
it was a question of bribing the khan, his wives and his retinues. Soon 
he had an opportunity of gaining possession of the grand principality, 
with the aid of the Tatars. In 1327 the khan's envoy, Cholkhan 
(Shchelkan, as Russian folk songs called him), came to Tver with a 
large Tatar force. The Tatars began to pillage the city, causing an outbreak among the populace. Grand Prince Alexander himself headed the 
rebels. Cholkhan and his Tatars were wiped out. Ivan Kalita hastened 
to the Horde and offered to the khan his services to punish the rebels. 
With a large Tatar army he invaded the principality of Tver and desolated it. Grand Prince Alexander Mikhailovich took refuge in Pskov. 
However, the metropolitan Theognost threatened the Pskov people 
with excommunication if they did not deliver the grand prince; the 
latter therefore fled to Lithuania. Later Alexander returned to Tver 
and managed to obtain the khan's pardon. Instigated, however, by Ivan 
Kalita the khan later summoned Alexander to the Horde and had him 
put to death. 

The Moscow prince achieved his goal. In 1328, after the suppression 
of Tver, the title of Grand Prince of Vladimir was bestowed upon him. 
The khan granted him the right to collect the Tatar tribute from all 
of Rūs and to deliver it in person to the Horde. This greatly increased 
Ivan Kalita's importance among the other Russian princes, and he 
exercised a certain authority over them. On the other hand, he became 
more independent of the Tatars. He appropriated some of the tribute, 
thus enriching himself. Ivan Kalita considerably expanded his possessions at the expense of other princes. Tenacious and unscrupulous, 
he diligently enlarged his possessions, sometimes by purchase, sometimes by violence. He made adroit use of the Tatars to increase his 
own power. As Marx said, Ivan Kalita used the khan as a weapon by 
means of which he rid himself of his most dangerous rivals and removed 
every obstacle that hampered his seizure of power. 

At the time of his death Ivan Kalita left a fairly large principality. 
His brother Yuri and he himself had added Mozhaisk and several 
other towns to the possessions they had inherited from their father. 
Now the Moskva River all along its course from Kolomna to Mozhaisk 
belonged to the Moscow princes. Thus was built up the territory of 
the future Russian realm.

Ivan Kalita was so powerful that he succeeded in establishing 
a certain amount of order in his principality. The chronicler assures 
us that under him "a great peace settled over the entire Russian land 
and the Tatars ceased to war against it." And within the principality 
itself brigandage diminished and life became safer. 

==== Beginning of the Struggle against the Tatars ====

===== Dimitry Donskoi =====
The increase of Muscovy continued after the 
death of Ivan Kalita. The Grand Principality of Vladimir remained 
all the time in the hands of Ivan Kalita’s descendants. Only in 1359, 
when his second son, Ivan II, died and the Moscow throne passed to 
the latter's young son, Dimitiy Ivanovich (1350-1389), did the neighbouring prince's attempt to dispossess the young Moscow prince of 
the grand principality. The metropolitan Alexei and the Moscow boyars 
succeeded in getting the Horde to confirm their prince as the grand 
prince: they placed the boy Dimitry in the saddle and marched against 
their rival, the prince of Suzdal. Moscow was victorious and Dimitry 
recovered Vladimir. 

Under Dimitry Muscovy became extremely powerful. He fortified 
his capital, Moscow, building a stone wall round it in place of the 
former oak wall (1366). He prosecuted a vigorous policy of gaining 
supremacy over the other principalities and "brought all the Russian 
princes under his will." He had to wage a prolonged war against the 
neighbouring principalities of Tver, Ryazan and Nizhni Novgorod. 
Dimitry’s enemies sought help from the Lithuanian Grand Duke, Olgierd, who thrice marched against Moscow, but the patriotism of the 
Muscovites and the stone wall of the capital made it impregnable. The 
boyars and clergy, and especially the metropolitan Alexei, helped 
Dimitry considerably. 

===== Annexation of the Lands of the Vychegda Komi People =====
Dimitry continued to extend the rule of Muscovy to the lands inhabited 
by non-Russian peoples. In the Ural region, on the Vychegda River, 
a tributary of the North Dvina, and on the upper reaches of the Kama 
lived the Zyryane (Komi) and their kindled tribe the Permiaks. The 
country of these people was covered with forests teeming with fur
bearing animals. The Komi were skilled trappers. They lived in tribes 
and were ruled by petty princes. They were heathens, who worshipped 
sacred trees and hung the skins of bears and other offerings on the 
branches. Similar offerings filled their shrines — little huts in which they 
kept crudely made effigies of their gods. Intercourse with the land of 
the Komi had long been kept up through Russian merchants who used 
to go there to buy furs. With the support of the Grand Prince Dimitry a 
monk by the name of Stefan proceeded to convert the Komi to Christianity. Stefan destroyed the heathen shrines and built an Orthodox church 
on the site of an especially revered sacred birch. He invented an alphabet 
for the Komi people and translated scriptural books into the Komi language. This attempt to create a Komi literature found no support among 
the ignorant Muscovy clergy. The adoption of Christianity threatened 
the Komi with enslavement. Stefan, who was appointed bishop to their 
land, built a fortified town at the confluence of the Vym and Vychegda. The surrounding lands and the fisheries were alienated and declared 
the property of the bishop. The latter became a sort of lord over the 
entire land with the population as his feudal dependants. While spreading Christianity, the bishop also extended the power of the Moscow 
Grand Prince. Moscow taxgatherers came to Vychegda and fleeced the 
local population. 

===== The Battle of Kulikovo =====
Under Dimitry the Grand Principality 
of Moscow grew so strong that it even took up the cudgels against 
the Tatars. The entire Russian people supported Dimitry in this under
taking. While Muscovy was becoming more powerful, the Golden 
Horde became increasingly weakened by internal dissensions and feudal 
disintegration. In various parts of the Golden Horde independent 
khans appeared, who contended among themselves for power. The mightiest of the Tatar feudal lords was Prince Mamai (commander of a thousand) who ruled over the largest part of the Horde. 

In 1378 the Tatar army sent by Mamai invaded the land of Ryazan 
in order to advance thence against Moscow, but it sustained a serious 
defeat on the Vozha River. Mamai then concluded an alliance with the 
Lithuanian Grand Duke Jagiello. Mamai marched out with a large host. 
The Grand Prince of Ryazan leagued himself with Mamai in the hope 
of securing the downfall of Muscovy by aid of the Horde. 

Dimitry collected an army of 150,000 men. A large number of 
Russian princes rallied under his banner. Two Lithuanian princes, 
sons of Olgierd, in the company of Byelorussian and Lithuanian warriors, also joined Dimitry. At the head of a mustered force Dimitry 
crossed the Oka and went as far as the Don. Here he held a military 
council. A hot dispute ensued. Some said: "Go on beyond the Don, 
Prince!" Others objected: "Don’t go, for we have many enemies." 
Dimitry sided with the more daring. His troops crossed the Don. On 
September 8, 1380, a decisive battle which has gone down in history as 
the Mamai Battle or the Battle of Kulikovo, was fought on the vast 
Kulikovo Field, at the mouth of the Nepryadva River. Russians and 
Tatars stood facing each other on the hills that fringed the field. As soon 
as the morning mist lifted, both armies descended to Kulikovo Field. 
Turning to his troops with words of cheer, Dimitry addressed himself 
not only to the princes and the boyars, but also the "younger humble 
people, peasant sons from small to great," who constituted the bulk 
of his army. The battle began. An area of several miles was saturated 
with blood; the ground was strewn with corpses; horses stumbled over 
the dead bodies; men died under the horses’ hoofs or were crushed in 
the fray. At first the Tatars had the upper hand. But a body of Russian 
troops, led by Dimitry’s cousin, Vladimir Andreyevich of Serpukhov 
and Dimitry’s waywode Volhynsky-Bobrok was lying in ambush. 
The men, impatient to join the fray, asked: "Are we going to stand here 
much longer? What help are we to them?" But Bobrok restrained his 
men because, as the chronicles tell us, the wind was against them. 
When the wind changed he said: "Now’s the time!" The regiment 
rushed into battle. The appearance of fresh forces in the rear of the 
Tatars at the crucial moment of the battle decided the issue in favour of 
the Russians. The Tatars took to their heels, hotly pursued by the Russians, who captured the Tatar camp. For his victory on Kulikovo Field 
on the Don, Dimitry was called Dimitry Donskoi (Dimitry of the Don). 

Shortly after this Mamai was killed in a battle against a new khan, 
Toktamish. After vanquishing Mamai, Toktamish, in 1382, attacked 
Moscow unexpectedly. Taken unawares, the Grand Prince Dimitry left 
for the north to muster an army. The boyars wanted to follow him in 
order to flee from the city, whereupon a rebellion broke out in Moscow. 
The Moscow inhabitants placed a guard at the gates of the Kremlin and did not permit anyone to leave, except the grand princess and the metropolitan. When the Tatars tried to assault the Kremlin the inhabitants of Moscow poured boiling water over the enemy, hurled stones at 
them and shot them down with firearms. Toktamish was unable to 
take Moscow by storm. After a battle that lasted three days the Tatars 
entered into negotiations, and secured Moscow's surrender by a stratagem and a promise that the city would not be harmed. But hardly 
had the gates been opened than the Tatars tore into the Kremlin, killed 
all its defenders, sacked the city and then gave it over to the flames. 
After this setback. Rūs had to pay tribute to the Tatars as before. 

Though the battle of Kulikovo had not yet freed Northeastern Rūs from the Tatar yoke, its significance, nevertheless, was great, 
for it showed that the rout of the Tatars was inevitable if the forces 
of the Russian people were united. Moscow became the centre of the 
struggle for national independence. The battle of Kulikovo was proof 
that in the east of Europe "... the necessity of taking defensive measures against the invasions of the Turks, Mongols and other Oriental 
peoples demanded that centralized states capable of withstanding the 
onslaught of the invaders be formed without delay."<ref>Stalin, ''Marxism and the National and Colonial Question'', Eng. ed., Moscow, 1940, p. 87.</ref> 

==== The Feudal Struggle in the First Half of the 15th Century ====

===== Annexation of the Principality of Nizhni Novgorod =====
During the reign of Grand Prince Vasili I (1389-1425), son of Dimitry Donskoi, 
the principality of Nizhni Novgorod was annexed to Muscovy. Vasili 
purchased an investiture from the khan giving him the right to this 
principality. But the fate of Nizhni Novgoiod was spelt not by the 
khan’s charter but by the Nizhni Novgorod feudal lords, who found 
it more to their advantage to serve the more powerful Grand Prince of 
Moscow. As soon as the troops of Muscovy approached Nizhni Novgorod, 
the boyars of the city declared to their prince: "Lord Prince, do not 
count on us, we are no longer thine, and are not with thee, but against 
thee." The prince of Nizhni Novgorod was seized and exiled. Nizhni 
Novgorod was annexed by Muscovy and with it the lands along the 
Oka, inhabited by Mordvinians. 

===== Victory of the Grand Prince over the Appanage Princes in the Principality of Moscow =====
Vasili Dimitrievich left his son, 
the Grand Prince Vasili Vasilievich (1425-1462), a large and powerful 
principality, so superior to all the others in size and material resources 
that the possibility of a struggle against him was out of the question. 

It now remained to put an end to feudal dissensions within the 
Moscow principality itself. The reign of Vasili Vasilievich was marked 
by sanguinary family feuds. Vasili’s uncle, the appanage Prince Yuri 
Dimitrievich, contested the title of grand prince. The khan settled the 
dispute in Vasili’s favour. Open war broke out between the princes, 
the struggle lasting about twenty years. The sons of Yuri Dimitrievich — Vasili ''Kosoi'' (the Squint-eyed) and Dimitry Shemyaka (the 
Unjust) — took an active part in it. Moscow passed from hand to hand 
several times. Once when the grand prince went on a pilgrimage to the 
monastery of the Troitsa (Trinity) a detachment of Shemyaka’s soldiers 
rode up to the monastery in sleighs, concealed under matting, took the 
guard by surprise and broke into the courtyard. Vasili was carried off to Moscow and blinded, whence he received the epithet ''Tyomni'' (the Blind). He was exiled to Uglich. Very soon, however, the vassals of 
the former grand prince began to rally about him in throngs. The blind 
Vasili advanced with them against Moscow. Shemyaka came out 
against him with his troops. A battle took place and Shemyaka, defeated, was forced to flee. A few years later he was poisoned. With the death 
of Shemyaka the struggle ended. In this civil strife Grand Prince Vasili 
was supported not only by the feudal lords and the clergy, but also by 
the peasants and craftsmen, who had suffered greatly from the feudal 
wars. Shemyaka is described in the folk tales about the ''Shemyakin Sud'' (the Unjust Trial) as an avaricious man and venal judge. 

The victory of Vasili the Blind over the appanage princes of Muscovy marked a very important stage in the process of terminating feudal dissension and uniting all the Russian lands into a single Russian 
state. Internal family feuds did not stop the further strengthening of 
the Moscow principality because at that time the majority of the feudal 
lords, and especially the free servants and the church, needed a strong 
state which would protect their interests, ensure their right to the land, 
defend these lands against enemy invasion, and keep their peasants in 
submission. This explains why the immediate vassals of the Grand 
Prince of Muscovy supported him so wholeheartedly. And for both the 
townspeople and the peasants, a united feudal state was better than 
the former isolated feudal domains. A strong united state ensured them 
the peace they did not have during the continuous internecine feudal 
wars of the princes. 

The development of trade gradually put an end to the economic 
isolation of the separate principalities. The need to fight the Tatars 
rallied the Russian people under the banner of the most powerful of 
the princes — the Grand Prince of Muscovy. The disunited feudal principalities were gradually merged into a single feudal state. 

===== Life and Culture in Northeastern Rūs in the 14th and the Beginning of the 15th Centuries =====
The destructive activities of the 
Tatars retarded the cultural development of Northeastern Rūs. The 
Tatar raids and incessant feudal wars grievously affected the life of 
the toiling masses. Besides paying tribute to the Golden Horde, the 
peasant and urban population was cruelly exploited by their own feudal 
lords. The law of the strong reigned supreme. The feudal lords, supported 
by their military retinues, plundered and exercised an arbitrary power, in defiance of their own princes. Source material tells, for instance, 
of a certain Luka Kolotsky, a Mozhaisk landowner of humble origin 
who had grown rich and built himself a handsome manor, no less splendid than that of a prince; he gathered about him a retinue of warriors, 
feasted, hunted, and kept many falcons, hounds and tame bears. He 
behaved like a despot. Once when the huntsmen of the Mozhaisk prince 
were following the chase, Kolotsky fell upon them and beat them, and took their falcons and dogs. To the prince’s envoys he replied arrogantly and defiantly. It was this kind of tyranny of the feudal lords that the 
peasants most of all suffered from. 

To keep the peasants in submission, the princes resorted to such 
cruel methods of punishment as flogging, cutting out tongues, lopping 
off cars, gouging out eyes. No less cruel were the princes to each other 
in their struggle for land and power. 

The 14th century has not handed down any monuments of art 
or great works of literature, such as have come down from the 11th 
and 12th centuries, before the Tatar invasion. There were few literate 
people: Grand Prince Vasili the Blind himself was "bookless and unlettered." Crude superstitions and belief in witchcraft were still 
prevalent among the people. Those suspected of witchcraft were burnt 
at the stake. Nevertheless cultural life did not die out completely. At 
the metropolitan’s court the compilation of annals still continued. The 
struggle for national independence was reflected in tales which described the exploits of Alexander Nevsky (''zhitiye'', ''i.e.'', the biography, 
of Prince Alexander) and the victory of the Russians on Kulikovo Field 
(''Tale of the Mamai Battle''). In Novgorod, which was little affected 
by the Tatar invasion, the construction of public buildings and of 
churches ornamented with magnificent mural paintings, continued 
in the 14th and 15th centuries. A splendid palace with a tall spire was 
built in the 15th century by the Novgorod bishop. 

In the beginning of the 15th century the famous icon painter, 
Andrei Rublyev, worked in Moscow. The icons painted by him, remarkable for their composition and delicacy of colouring, can be seen today 
in our museums.

=== The Empire of Timur and the Decline of the Golden Horde ===

==== The Empire of Timur. The Uzbeks ====

===== Conquest of Samarkand by Timur =====
During the second half of 
the 14th century the Golden Horde began to manifest signs of feudal 
disintegration. The Tatar princes, owners of separate domains, no 
longer owed fealty to the khan of the Golden Horde. The feudal lords 
deposed undesirable khans and set up others of their own choice. It 
was not rare for several rival khans at once to contend with each other 
for power. A serious blow was dealt the Golden Horde at the end of the 14th century by the formation in Central Asia of the empire of Timur, which seized some of the dominions of the Golden Horde. 

The process of feudalization made great strides in Central Asia 
in the 14th century. Large feudal estates sprang into existence. The 
peasantry was heavily burdened by the services it was obliged to render 
the khans and other feudal lords, who were constantly at war with 
the khans. The eastern section of the Chagatai domain separated and 
formed a kingdom of its own, called Mogolistan. In western Chagatai 
there was a preponderance of Turkic tribes and the Mongols living there 
came under their influence. In the middle of the 14th century a Mongol-Turkic feudal lord, Timur, called the Lame (Tamerlane) came into 
prominence. Around him rallied a retinue of several hundred warriors, 
with whom he entered the service of the lord of Samarkand, Hosain, 
and became the companion of his campaigns. 

At that time Samarkand was a big, rich city with a large population 
of craftsmen and tradespeople. After the invasion of the Mongols the 
city had lost its fortress walls and lay exposed on all sides. The Samarkand artisans suffered much from the oppression of their native feudal 
lords. In 1365 the Mongols of Mogolistan advanced against Samarkand. 
Hosain and Timur fled. The inhabitants of Samarkand united to organize their defence. The civilian population was headed by a cotton cleaner Abu-Bekr-Kelevi. With the help of the workpeople of the city he 
seized the power and organized the defence of Samarkand. After a 
protracted struggle he succeeded in repelling the Mongols. After their 
victory the people of the city retained the power in their own hands. 
But the following year Hosain and Timur returned. With flattering 
promises they inveigled Abu-Bekr to their camp and seized him. Abu-Bekr was executed. 

In 1370 Timur overthrew Hosain and took possession of Samarkand, Bokhara and the whole country between the Amu Darya and 
the Syr Darya. He created a strong army of Chagatai nomads, and 
embarked upon the conquest of neighbouring territories. 

===== The Conquests of Timur =====
Timur cherished the ambition of 
creating a world empire. "The whole area of the inhabited world", 
he said, "is not worth having two monarchs." He conquered Khoresm, 
the chief city of which — Urgenj — was a trade rival of Samarkand. 
Urgenj, on Timur’s orders, was levelled with the ground. Part of its 
population was transported to Samarkand, and the site on which 
Urgenj had stood was sown with barley. Then Timur advanced against 
Persia. This campaign lasted five years and ended with the subjugation 
of Persia. At that time the Golden Horde was united under the rule of 
Khan Toktamish. Khoresm had but recently been a dominion of the 
Horde. Toktamish, taking advantage of Timur’s absence — the latter 
was engaged in the Persian campaign — invaded Khoresm. The population sided with him, but Timur hurriedly returned from his campaign and, after punishing rebellious Khoresm, he marched to Toktamish’s dominions in Western Siberia and routed him. 

At the end of the 14th century Timur invaded Transcaucasia, 
devastated Azerbaijan, Armenia and Georgia, and besieged the Georgian 
king, Bagrat, in Tbilisi. The Georgians made a desperate sally. "Like 
falcons at a flock of cranes, like a lion at a herd of bulls" the Georgians flung themselves upon the foe, but to no avail. In spite of the 
defenders' courageous resistance, Timur took Tbilisi by storm. King 
Bagrat was taken prisoner. But Timur had hardly gone before the Georgians rebelled again. Bagrat promised to make his land submit to Timur’s rule if the latter released him. Timur permitted him to go to 
Georgia, where Bagrat immediately joined the rebels. The Georgians 
ambushed the enemy in a narrow ravine, and wiped them out, whereupon Timur moved an even greater army against the Georgians. Georgia 
was utterly devastated and compelled to submit. 

Timur's encroachments had brought his territories quite close to 
the dominions of the Golden Horde. Toktamish attempted to stem the 
tide of this advance, but suffered a crushing defeat on the Terek (1395), 
Timur invaded the territory of the Golden Horde, destroyed Sarai, 
marched to the then Russian frontier city of Yelets, destroyed it, 
and returned to Transcaucasia. Timur’s last years were spent in completing the conquest of Persia and his expedition into India (1398-1399). This was succeeded by his war with the Turks, which ended in 
the capture of the Turkish sultan, Bayezid (1402). 

Timur was notorious for his ferocious cruelty. He mercilessly 
punished any attempt at resistance. Nothing but desolation and 
ruins remained as witnesses of his conquests. The populations of the 
captured cities were almost completely massacred. Only the artisans 
were spared to be driven off into captivity. 

As a monument to his victories Timur had pyramids made of the 
skulls of his slain enemies. 

The conquered territories of Timur formed a vast feudal kingdom. 
Timur shared his dominions among his sons and grandsons. The feudal 
lords did not cultivate their own lands but rented them out in small 
lots to the peasants who had to pay quitrent and render services under 
the corvée. 

The capital of Timur’s empire was Samarkand. Here he built 
many magnificent buildings, the ruins of which have been preserved 
to the present day. Timur had a broad avenue with shops on both sides 
laid out in place of the narrow crooked streets, A water-supply system 
for the city was organized. Blossoming gardens surrounded Samarkand. 
Under Timur the city became the centre of a large caravan trade. It was 
also an important centre for the crafts inasmuch as Timur had 
brought over all the artisans from the conquered cities to Samarkand. 

Timur’s grandson, Ulugh Beg, was the most outstanding of his successors. He was 
a patron of science and poetry, and built a splendid observatory near Samarkand, in 
which very exact scientific 
observations were made. In 
the 14th and 15th centuries 
the science of astronomy 
was on a considerably higher 
level in Uzbekistan than it 
was in Western Europe. The 
famous poet and philosopher, 
Navoyi, the author of the 
well-known poem "Farkhad 
and Shirin," and other works, 
lived in Ulugh Beg’s reign. 

===== The Uzbeks and Kirghiz =====
After Timur’s death (1405) 
his empire fell apart. Intestine warfare broke out among 
his heirs. 

A decisive blow was dealt 
the Timur empire by the Uzbeks, who constituted a union of various Turkic tribes (including the Polovtsi) that roamed 
the steppes of Central Asia. The Uzbeks had formerly been part of the 
Golden Horde, and called themselves Uzbeks after Uzbeg, khan of the 
Golden Horde. Their chief occupation was herding. 

In the beginning of the 16th century the Uzbeks united under the 
rule of Sheibani Khan. During his reign they penetrated the country 
between the Amu Darya and Syr Darya, began to settle in the fertile 
valleys and engage in agriculture. Sheibani conquered Samarkand 
(about 1500), then Bokhara, and subjugated all the possessions of 
Timur’s descendants. 

However, the Uzbeks did not form a centralized state; their domains 
were divided into several principalities, each ruled by a sultan and 
all of them constantly at war with each other. Under the Uzbek khans 
Samarkand lost its importance, and Bokhara became the capital. An 
independent Uzbek khanate was also organized in the 16th century at 
Khiva. 

We find mention in the 16th century not only of the Uzbeks, but 
also of the Kirghiz. They are supposed to have come to Central Asia 
from the upper reaches of the Yenisei River. Some of the Kirghiz continued to live along the Yenisei even in the 17th century. In Central Asia the Kirghiz inhabited the territory of the present-day Kirghiz 
Soviet Socialist Republic. 

==== Peoples of the Volga Region under the Rule of the Tatars ====

===== The Kazan Khanate =====
In the 15th century, as a result of the development of feudal relations in various of its regions, the Golden 
Horde broke up into several independent khanates. The local feudal 
lords, who exploited the agricultural and nomad pastoral population, 
grew stronger. They strove to become politically independent of the 
Golden Horde. Timur’s invasion proved to be the final blow, from 
which the Golden Horde was never to recover. 

Thus, not far from the confluence of the Kama and the Volga, 
on the site of the former Bulgar kingdom there arose in the 15th century the Kazan khanate. In 1437 one of the Golden Horde khans, Ulugh 
Mahommed, who had been banished by his brother, crossed the Russian 
frontier with his horde and expressed his readiness to serve Grand 
Prince Vasili the Blind. His offer being rejected, he crossed the 
Volga, occupied the Bulgar town of Kazan, and killed the ruling 
petty prince. 

The capital of the new khanate, the city of Kazan, stood on the 
steep bluffs of the River Kazanka, and was protected by wooden walls 
and surrounding swamps. After the conquest or the Middle Volga by the 
Tatars, the native inhabitants of the Kazan territory — the Bulgars — 
intermingled with the conquerors and formed the nucleus of the khanate 
population, which later was supplemented by an influx of Tatars from 
other Tatar lands. As distinct from the steppe regions, where nomad 
herding prevailed, the chief occupation of the inhabitants of the Kazan 
territory, ever since the Bulgars, was agriculture. The Volga and its 
tributaries abounded in fish, and the neighbouring forests in fur-bearing animals and bees. Fishing, hunting, and collecting the honey of 
wild bees were therefore also a very important sphere of economy. 
Rich pasture lands permitted the raising of large herds. The products 
of livestock breeding were articles of trade. Kazan leather, an item 
of export, was famous. Slaves, too, were an article of export. The Kazan 
Tatars made raids on the Russian border regions and carried off numerous captives. Some of these captives had to till the soil of the Tatar 
feudal lords; others were sold to visiting merchants. An annual fair 
was held on Gostinoy Island on the Volga, to which came merchants 
from Russia, Persia, Bokhara and Khiva. 

The power in the Kazan khanate was in the hands of the feudal 
landowners. At their head stood the khan; the princes (''beks'') and the nobles (called ''murzi'' in Tatar) were subject to him. The Moslem clergy were also feudal lords. The highest dignitary of the church was called 
a ''seid''. The clergy in Kazan were very influential. The khan himself 
dismounted from his horse when he met a ''seid''. The khan and other 
feudal lords collected tribute in the form of money, honey and other 
products from the "black people," ''i.e.'', the masses. 

In the early years of its existence the Kazan khanate was a fairly 
powerful kingdom. The Kazan khan, Ulugh Mahommed, was for a short 
time in possession even of Nizhni Novgorod. At Suzdal the Kazan 
Tatars inflicted a telling defeat on Vasili the Blind, the Grand Prince 
of Muscovy, taking him prisoner. He was liberated only for a large 
ransom. But later, internal dissension greatly weakened the Kazan 
khanate. There was no unity among the Kazan feudal lords, and a furious struggle raged for the power and for tribute. Groups of 
rival feudal lords alternately deposed khans and placed new ones 
on the throne. The enemies of the Kazan khanate — Muscovy and the 
Crimea — took advantage of this struggle to interfere in the affairs 
of the khanate and they placed their own creatures on the Kazan 
throne. 

===== The Volga Region under the Rule of the Tatars =====
The Mordvinian, Mari, Udmurt and Chuvash peoples, who had long lived in the 
Middle Volga region, were under the power of the Tatars. All these peoples had taken up agriculture, but hunting and the collecting of honey 
still remained an important pursuit. After the Tatar conquest these 
peoples had to pay tribute in the form of marten skins, honey and 
money. By this time the clan system had already disintegrated among 
the Mari, Mordvinians, Chuvashes and Udmurts, who were governed 
by the descendants of tribal princelings. These princelings 
quickly assimilated Tatar ways and customs, intermingled with 
the Tatar feudal lords and together with them exploited their own 
tribesmen. 

The Bashkirs, who roamed the valleys of the Belaya and Ufa 
rivers, were also under the rule of the Tatar khans. The chief occupation 
of the Bashkirs was herding. Hunting served as an auxiliary means 
of existence. They paid the Kazan khans tribute in the form of marten 
skins.

===== The Nogai Horde =====
In the beginning of the 15th century a large 
independent horde ruled by its own princes came into being in the region 
between the Volga and the Yaik (the Ural) rivers. This horde was 
called the Nogai (13th-14th centuries) because it contained certain 
tribes that had once been subject to Nogai, the khan of the Golden 
Horde. The Nogais continued to lead a pastoral nomad life. The 
horde was broken up into small domains ruled almost independently 
by members of the prince's family; one of the princes was recognized 
as the chief prince.

==== The Crimean Khanate ====
An independent Tatar khanate was formed in the Crimea in the 
15th century. The Tatars were in possession of the northern steppe of 
the Crimean Peninsula. The seaboard, which was divided from the 
steppe by mountain ranges, was in the hands of the Italians. After the 
Crusades, two powerful Italian mercantile republics — Venice and 
Genoa — seized the most important trade routes to the East in the 13th 
century. The Venetian and Genoese merchants penetrated to the Black 
Sea and seized the most important harbours in the Crimea, forcing 
out the Greeks. A struggle commenced between Venice and Genoa for 
possession of the Black Sea markets. Genoa was victorious, and the 
chief coastal towns of the Crimea came under its power. The centre 
of the Genoese colonies was Kaffa (now Feodosiya), where the ruins of 
Genoese walls and towers exist to this day. The Genoese in the Crimea 
were compelled to recognize the supremacy of the Golden Horde khans, 
but they retained their independence in the administration of their 
internal affairs and spread their rule over the entire southern shore of 
the Crimea, with its heterogeneous population (Greeks, Italians, Armenians, Jews, Tatars, and others). 

Originally the Crimea Tatars engaged exclusively in herding. 
They wandered with their herds far beyond the confines of the peninsula. But gradually, agriculture developed side by side with cattle 
breeding. The Tatar feudal lords began to encroach upon the lands of 
the indigenous peoples of the Crimea as well as of their own tribesmen 
who had settled on the peninsula. The Tatar peasants who lived on the 
lands of the feudal lords had to pay them a tenth of the crops they grew 
and perform services for them under the corvée. The Christian and 
Jewish population had to pay quitrent. 

In the 15th century the Crimean feudal lords grew so strong that 
they elected their own khan in the person of Hadji Girai, who was 
considered a descendant of Genghis Khan. After his death (1466) a 
struggle for power broke out among his sons. Victory fell to the clever 
and able Mengli Girai, but even he did not immediately establish 
himself firmly on the throne. One of the big Crimean feudal lords quarrelled with him and appealed to the Turks. Mengli Girai found an ally 
in the Genoese. In 1475 a Turkish fleet appeared off the coast of the 
Crimea and destroyed Kaffa and other Genoese fortresses. Mengli 
Girai was taken prisoner and carried off to Constantinople. The 
remaining Genoese intermingled with the Tatar population of the 
Crimea. 

The sultan converted the khanate of the Crimea into a dependency 
of Turkey. By agreement with the Crimean feudal lords he restored 
Mengli Girai to the throne (1479-1515). The Crimean khans were obliged 
to come to the sultan’s aid with their troops at his first summons. The sultan placed his garrisons in Kaffa and other important Crimean coastal towns. 

Mengli Girai formed a close alliance with the Moscow Grand Prince 
Ivan III, and with his help routed his enemy — the khan of the Golden 
Horde. In league with Muscovy, Mengli Girai waged war against 
Lithuania and also made frequent devastating raids upon the Ukraine; 
he captured and burnt Kiev, and went deep into the Lithuanian Duchy. 
The Polish kings, who were also the grand dukes of Lithuania, annually 
paid heavy tribute to Mengli Girai and his descendants, to purchase 
immunity from his incursions. The Muscovy princes, in their turn, 
sent annual gifts to the Crimea. Bakhchisarai — "the palace of gardens" — 
became the capital of the Crimean khanate. The city received its 
name from its luxurious palaces and gardens with their beautiful 
fountains. 

In Bakhchisarai Mengli Girai built a school. Instruction in it, 
however, was limited to the teaching of the Mohammedan sacred books. 

The Crimean khanate was the most powerful Tatar khanate in 
Eastern Europe. It lasted until the end of the 18th century. 

==== The Siberian Khanate. The Kazakhs ====

===== The Peoples of Western Siberia in the 15th Century =====
The 
Tatars living east of the Urals along the Tobol River formed a separate 
Siberian khanate. In the 16th century the city situated at the mouth of 
the Tobol, which the Russians called "Siberia," became its capital. 
The Siberian khanate was not a united kingdom. It was broken up into 
a large number of small principalities (''ulusi'') whose petty princes 
enjoyed a large measure of independence. 

The Siberian Tatars engaged in cattle raising and to some extent in 
agriculture, but the chief wealth of their land lay in their valuable 
fur-bearing animals — sable, marten, beaver, squirrel, etc. Hunting 
provided the Siberian Tatars with a profitable article of exchange with 
the more cultured lands of Asia — Bokhara and Khiva. The Siberian 
Tatars also obtained furs by robbing their neighbours, the trappers, 
from whom they collected tribute in furs. 

Along the upper reaches of the Tura and to the north of it lived 
the Mansi (Voguls); along the lower reaches of the Irtysh and along 
the Ob — the Khanti (Ostiaks). Both of these peoples were divided into 
small tribes ruled by petty princes. The Mansi lived by hunting. Each 
clan owned a section of forest where it set up enclosures for the catching 
of elk and placed arbalests. Some of the Mansi practised a rudimentary 
form of agriculture and cattle breeding. The Khanti lived chiefly by 
fishing. Those of the tribe who inhabited the tundra raised herds of 
northern elk.

The Mansi and the Khanti were heathens: the Khanti worshipped 
the bear, which they regarded as their ancestor. Whenever they killed 
a bear they performed a sacred song and dance over it, to "atone for 
their sin." 

The Tatars conquered the Mansi and the Khanti and forced them 
to pay tribute in furs. In case of war the Vogul and Ostiak princelings 
had to go with their troops to help the Tatars. 

To the north of the Khanti the Nentsi (Samoyedes) roamed the 
tundra with their herds of elk. In the spring they moved on to the Ob 
River for fishing. The vast tundra made the Nentsi inaccessible to the 
conquerors; they therefore did not fall under the rule of the Tatars.

===== Formation of the Kazakh Khanate =====
In the middle of the 
15th century the Kazakh khanate was formed east of the Urals, 
on the land of present-day Kazakhstan. The nomadic peoples comprising it had formerly belonged to a union of Uzbek tribes. In 1466 they 
separated from the Uzbeks and formed an independent kingdom. The 
Kazakhs received their name from the fact that they had separated 
from the Uzbeks (the word ''kazakh'' in Turkic means "a free man who 
has broken away from his tribe," from which comes the Russian word 
''kazak'' — Cossack — meaning "a free man").

== Creation of the Russian National State ==

=== The Reign of Ivan III and Vasili III ===

==== Territorial Formation of the Russian State ====

===== Consolidation of Northeastern Rūs =====
Beginning with the 14th 
century closer economic ties developed among the different Russian principalities. This contributed to their gradual consolidation into a single national Russian realm. However, the economy of 
Russia was, in itself, inadequate to ensure the formation of a centralized Russian state in the 15th century. The process of unification was 
hastened by the need to defend the country against the Tatars and 
other external enemies. 

During the reign of Ivan III (1462-1505), son of Vasili the Blind, 
the Grand Principality of Moscow annexed almost all the lands of 
Northeastern Rūs that had remained independent, and formed a single 
Russian state. 

Of the territories that still retained their independence before the 
15th century the largest was that of Novgorod, which had vast colonial possessions in the Maritime North. Novgorod continued to be ruled by a ''veche'', and by elected burgomasters and ''tisyatski''. It concluded 
agreements with the grand princes as of old, but the Novgorod boyars 
clearly realized that their liberties were coming to an end. Among 
these Novgorod boyars was a group who were inclined to side with Lithuania in order to preserve their ancient privileges. This group was 
headed by the rich and influential Boretsky family. One member of 
the family was the Novgorod burgomaster. His mother, the energetic 
Marfa Boretskaya, led the struggle against Muscovy. The Boretsky 
faction often exclaimed at the ''veche'': "We do not want to be called the 
patrimony of the Grand Prince of Moscow! We are free people, and we 
will not tolerate any insults from Moscow; we are for King Casimir." 

In 1471 the ruling faction of Novgorod boyars betrayed their land 
and submitted to the rule of Casimir, the Polish king and Lithuanian Grand Duke. On the other hand, the Novgorod poor were for union 
with Moscow, with which Novgorod was inseparably bound. Ivan III, 
leading a big army, undertook a campaign against Novgorod. The 
Novgorod army was defeated in a decisive battle on the Shelona River. The city was suffering from a shortage of bread, and the poorest 
elements of the population compelled the boyars to enter into negotiations with the grand prince. Ivan III ceased military operations on condition that indemnity be paid. Novgorod promised to break its alliance 
with Lithuania. Moscow permitted Novgorod to retain its former 
"liberties." However, Ivan III annexed Novgorod’s colonies to Muscovy. In 1472 a Muscovy army invaded the land of Perm. This country 
was inhabited by the Komi-Permiak people. The Muscovy princes 
defeated the Perm princes and captured their chief towns. The land 
of Perm was forced to recognize the supremacy of the Moscow Grand 
Prince. Being in need of metal, Ivan III sent men skilled in mining to 
the newly conquered Ural regions. 

Disturbances still continued in Novgorod. The defeated boyars 
began to settle accounts with the friends of Muscovy and the latter 
sought protection from the grand prince. In 1477 the people of Novgorod welcomed Ivan III as their ''Gosudar''. They had never before bestowed this title on any grand prince, and in this case were prompted 
by a desire to emphasize that Great Novgorod remained independent 
of Muscovy, since in the dialect of Novgorod the term ''Gosudar'', meaning lord, was applied to any feudal landowner. Ivan III took advantage 
of this occasion to demand the same "sovereignty" in Novgorod as 
he enjoyed in Moscow, that is, unlimited power, since ''Gosudar'' in the 
Moscow dialect meant sovereign, supreme ruler. The Novgorod ''veche'' 
refused to accede to Ivan III’s demands. He marched against Novgorod a second time and besieged it. This time the Novgorodians made 
no attempt at resistance, and opened negotiations with him. In January 
1478, after a lengthy parley, they accepted all the conditions laid down by the grand prince. The ''veche'' was abolished; Novgorod was to be 
governed by the grand prince’s 
lord lieutenants, instead of the 
burgomaster; the greater part of 
the lands that had belonged to 
the Novgorod feudal lords passed 
to the grand prince. The republic 
of Novgorod ceased to exist. The 
symbol of Novgorod’s liberties — 
the ''veche'' bell — was removed. 
Many of Novgorod’s leading 
boyar and merchant families 
(including Marfa Boretskaya) 
were removed to the cities of 
Muscovy and replaced by nobles 
from Moscow. The military servitors of Muscovy were settled 
by the grand prince on the lands 
that had been appropriated from 
the Novgorod boyars. Pskov was 
allowed to retain some of its former independence for having 
helped Muscovy in the war against Novgorod. 

The next principality to be annexed was Tver, which had once 
been a rival of Moscow. The Prince of Tver, Mikhail Borisovich, like 
the Novgorod prince, had betrayed Russia and trafficked with Casimir, 
the Polish king and the Grand Duke of Lithuania. Ivan III profited 
by this to besiege Tver. During the night Mikhail fled to Lithuania. 
The Tver boyars transferred their allegiance to the conqueror (1485). 

The principality of Ryazan also became a tributary of Muscovy. 
Thus, during the reign of Ivan III a single national Russian state was 
formed in place of the former independencies of Northeastern Rūs. 

The Russian national state united the Russian people. The kindred 
peoples of Byelorussia and Ukraine were unable to free themselves 
from the power of Lithuania and Poland and form their own national 
states. They subsequently united with the Russian people in a single 
centralized multi-national state. 

==== Liberation from the Tatar Yoke. The Conquests of Ivan III ====

===== Overthrow of the Tatar Yoke (1480) =====
With the incorporation of Great Novgorod, Muscovy became powerful enough to venture on casting off the Tatar yoke. Ivan III made the most of the Golden Horde’s disintegration. He contracted a close alliance with the Crimean khan, Mengli Girai, to whom he annually sent envoys 
with personal gifts for the khan, 
his wives and his leading feudal 
lords. Taking advantage of the 
weakness of the Golden Horde, 
Ivan III stopped paying tribute 
to the Tatars. 

Ahmed, khan of the Golden 
Horde, leagued himself with the 
Grand Duke of Lithuania in 1480 
and went forth to compel Moscow 
to pay tribute. The grand prince 
led his troops to the Oka, to meet 
the Tatars. Ahmed, who was expecting help from the Lithuanian 
Grand Duke, moved upstream, in 
the direction of the Lithuanian 
border. At this time Ivan III 
was confronted with the menace 
of a mutiny on the part of his 
brothers. The grand prince hastened back to Moscow, subdued 
his brothers and returned to his troops.

The Tatar and the Russian hosts stood facing each other on opposite 
sides of the Ugra River, a tributary of the Oka. Neither the Russians 
nor the Tatars crossed the river. Ahmed was willing to make peace but 
he insisted upon the payment of tribute. The bishop of Rostov, Vassian, 
sent a message to Ivan III exhorting him to courageously stand his 
ground against the Tatars and not to heed the cowards who advised 
him to betray his native land to the enemy. Thus things dragged on until the onset of frosts. When the Ugra froze, Ivan ordered his troops to 
withdraw in order to give battle from more favourable positions. The 
khan, however, hesitated to attack. His troops were suffering from the 
cold and lack of food. Meanwhile, Ivan III’s ally, the Crimean Khan 
Mengli Girai, was menacing the Golden Horde from the rear, and the 
Grand Duke of Lithuania, who had promised his aid, had left Ahmed 
in the lurch. The latter retired from Moscow’s borders. Thus ended this remarkable seven months’ hostile meeting on the Ugra River. 

And thus ended the Tatar-Mongolian yoke, which for two centuries 
had lain heavily upon the Russian people. Having won its independence 
from Tatar domination, the Russian national state was now able 
further to develop and strengthen itself politically and economically. 

The so recently omnipotent Golden Horde was utterly routed by the Crimean Tatars in 1502. In place of the Golden Horde a small khanate came into existence on the lower reaches of the Volga, the capital of which, was the city of Astrakhan.

===== Russia’s Foreign Policy (1492–1505) =====
Freedom from the 
Tatar yoke enabled Ivan III to undertake the gradual recovery of 
Russian territories on its western frontier. Prom the Murmansk coast 
to the lower reaches of the Danube and the Black Sea lay the ancient 
Russian lands of Kiev Rūs, which had been seized by the Danes, Swedes, 
Germans, Lithuanians and Turks. As a preliminary to his struggle 
for the acquisition of Smolensk and the Baltic, Ivan III in 1492 concluded peace with Turkey, being the first European sovereign to do so. 

That same year Ivan III had a fortress built on the delta of the Narova River, and named it after himself — Ivan-gorod (the city of Ivan). 
This marked the beginning of Russia’s righteous war for possession 
of the Baltic Sea. The Russian army, in retaliating the Swedish incursions which reached almost to the city of Vologda, advanced to the 
shores of the Gulf of Bothnia. A diplomatic war commenced over Pechenga (Petsamo) which the Danes were endeavouring to seize. In 1500 
open war that lasted three years broke out with Lithuania for the possession of ancient Russian lands. The Muscovy troops won several 
brilliant victories over the Lithuanians. Lithuania entered into an 
alliance with the Livonian order. The German knights approached 
Pskov several times but suffered a serious defeat at the hands of the 
Russian troops. By a peace treaty with Lithuania, the ancient Russian 
province, the land of Seversk, including the city of Chernigov, were 
annexed to the dominions of Muscovy, bringing Russia close up to 
Kiev. The Livonian Order undertook to pay annual tribute to the Moscow Grand Prince, but did not fulfil its obligations. 

Ivan III forced the Kazan khanate to accept vassal dependence 
on Muscovy. He interfered in the appointment of khans to the Kazan 
throne, and the people of Kazan could do nothing without the permission of Muscovy. 

Several campaigns were launched in the Urals. In 1500 the troops 
of Muscovy crossed the Ural Mountain Range. In the mountains they 
were attacked by the Nentsi, whom they defeated and from whom they 
took away 200 reindeer. After that the Moscow waywodes continued on 
their way by reindeer while the common soldiers travelled on dog 
teams. The Yugra princes who came forth against them were routed and 
compelled to pay tribute. 

Ivan III pursued a cautious but tenacious policy of consolidating 
the Russian state. Occasional failures did not daunt or check him. He 
achieved his ends by clever and surefooted tactics. His relations with 
the Tatar khans were governed by subtle policy, he skillfully played 
off the Crimean and Siberian Tatars against the Golden Horde, and 
tried to avoid recourse to arms. Harsh in his attitude towards his vassals, he held the power firmly in his hands and succeeded in making himself feared.

==== Russian Social and State Structure at the End of the 15th Century ====

===== Development of Money-Commodity Relations =====
The unification of the Russian nation into a single body-politic was possible given the existence of at least a rudimentary form of market intercourse between the various Russian territories. 

The economy of the Russian state at the end of the 15th century 
was fundamentally still a natural one. But the development of money-commodity relations in this period proceeded more intensively than 
formerly. More active trade relations were established between the different towns and regions. A large trading centre was created in Moscow; 
shops and bazaars arose, the latter being originally known as ''gostiniye dvori'', literally meaning "guest inns" for the accommodation of visiting merchants. Food products were brought for sale to Moscow from 
the surrounding regions. A foreigner who visited Moscow during Ivan 
III’s reign gives a vivid description of winter trade: on the ice of the 
Moscow River "the merchants set up their stalls with various wares"; 
here "every day throughout the winter corn, meat, pigs, firewood, 
hay, and other necessary supplies are brought for sale; at the end of 
November all the people in the vicinity of Moscow slaughter their 
cows and pigs and bring them to the city for sale. It is a pleasure to 
look at these enormous quantities of stripped animal carcasses standing on the ice on their hind legs." 

Thus, the individual household no longer produced all its own 
foodstuffs, and purchased some of them on the market. The growth 
of money-commodity relations is evidenced by the fact that landowners 
at the end of the 15th and beginning of the 16th centuries were no longer content with receiving payment in kind from their peasants, and 
also demanded money from them (monetary quitrent). 

The development of trade enhanced the importance of the merchants in the cities. At the end of the 14th century mention is made 
in Moscow of a group of rich Surozh merchants (''i.e.'', those trading 
with the town of Surozh, or Sudak, in the Crimea) and clothiers. In 
addition to trade the rich merchants engaged in money-lending; many 
of the appanage princes and even the brothers of Ivan III were in debt 
to them. The merchants were interested in the cessation of feudal 
strife and the unification of all Russian lands, inasmuch as this would 
foster trade between the various parts of the country. 

===== The Army and Fee Estates. The Landlords and the Peasants =====
The economy of the feudal patrimonies remained a natural one, 
and still found difficulty in adapting itself to the market. There was 
little money in the country. When in need of money, the landowners 
borrowed it from the rich merchants, but chiefly from the monasteries, which amassed considerable wealth through the collection of donations and by usury. Lands were mortgaged as security; in default 
of redemption the mortgage was foreclosed and the lands remained 
the property of the monastery. Large patrimonies were ruined and 
broken up. The chief military force was no longer the large landowners 
who, under the new conditions, could not afford to maintain large military retinues, but the petty landowners. Most of these petty landowners were the vassals of the more powerful feudal lords and possessed lands which they had received from their lords in payment for 
their services. They were chiefly military servitors or the ''dvoryane'' 
(nobility) who belonged to the court of the grand prince. The term 
''dvoryane'' was applied to all small landowners who served in the army 
of the grand prince. 

The army became centralized. Until then every prince had had 
to appear with his own troops when a summons came from the grand 
prince calling him to the army. Such a conglomerate army was deficient in many ways. In case of a sudden attack by the enemy it was 
difficult to marshal. On each occasion it was necessary to come to terms 
with every individual prince. There was no single command in the 
army. Every regiment fought under its own "banner." As the separate 
principalities were destroyed, Ivan III attached the regiments or, as 
it was then said, the "''dvori''" (courts) of the princes to his own court. 
In this way a large army of the ''dvoryane'' (courtiers or nobles) was 
formed, augmented by freemen and servants of the boyars. 

However, the more important boyars who had been former princes 
still retained their own small forces, and during campaigns they 
joined the army of the ''dvoryane''. 

Owing to the lack of money in the treasury of the grand princes, 
the ''dvoryane'' did not receive their allowances. Instead of paying in 
money, the grand prince gave the ''dvoryanin'' a small section of land 
which he could hold so long as he rendered military service. If a noble 
resigned his military service, he forfeited the land. The lands given to 
the nobles or other military servitors were called ''pomestya'' or fee estates 
in contradistinction to the patrimonies, which were the absolute property of their owners, and the person rendering this military service 
who held the estate in fief was called ''pomeshchik'' (landlord). 

Thus, the ''dvoryane'' formed a large stratum of petty landed proprietors (later all landowners came to be called ''pomeshchiki''). The ''pomeshchik'' had the right to collect quitrent from the peasants living on his 
estate and to force them to render compulsory services under the corvée. 

Under feudalism the peasant was never free. The feudal lord kept 
him on his land under compulsion, and thought nothing of resorting 
to open violence. It was especially difficult for the "old inhabitants," 
peasants who had lived on the patrimony for a long time, to quit the land of their feudal lord. But even the other peasants were restricted in their freedom of passing from one landlord to another: custom demanded that they quit only after the winding up of all the field work, 
in the beginning of winter, when the grain had been stored in their 
master’s granaries. 

After the formation of a strong, centralized state, which protected 
the interests of the feudal lords, the nobility wanted to legalize this 
arrangement and thus further strengthen their power over the peasants. 

To provide serf labour for the landlords, Ivan III passed a law in 
1497 by which the peasant was not permitted to leave his landlord 
until all the farm work had been completed. A definite day was established throughout the realm on which the peasant could "leave," 
namely, St. George’s Day ("''Yuryev Den''"), that is, November 26 
(old style calendar). The peasant could quit his master during the week 
preceding St. George’s Day and the week following it. But before doing so he had to settle all accounts with his master and pay for his ''pozhiloye'', that is, his tenancy. Even before 1497 the peasants had been 
greatly restricted in their right of transition from one landowner to another; the new law increased these restrictions. Muscovy was a feudal 
state, and it helped the landlords in every way possible to enthrall 
the peasants. 

The numerous nobility acquired great political influence in the 
state. Having no landed property of their own, the nobles wholly depended on the grand prince, from whom they received their estates 
and who gave them every opportunity to exploit the peasantry. The 
grand prince therefore had a loyal servant in the nobility, upon whose 
support he could rely in the matter of strengthening his power.

===== Central and Local Government =====
When the separate feudal 
principalities were united in a single feudal state, the government 
of Muscovy was organized on a new basis. Under Ivan III the entire 
administration became concentrated in the hands of the grand prince. 

All the princes who had at one time been independent rulers were 
now in the service of the Grand Prince of Muscovy and became his 
boyars. The most illustrious of the boyars were members of the grand 
prince’s council, called the ''duma''. The former princes and the rest of 
the boyars ranked according to lineage or, as it was then said, "according to birth." The most exalted boyars received high posts. A boyar 
of quality could not serve under a man of inferior dignity or even occupy a similar position as an inferior. When appointments were made 
for campaigns or other service, disputes would arise over "place," 
with disastrous results. This state of affairs historians have given the 
name ''mestnichestvo'' — contention for precedence (from the Russian word 
''mesto'' meaning "place"). This rivalry for precedence wrought considerable mischief. Appointments were made not on personal merit and 
ability, but in consideration of a man’s rank and dignity, even though they were incompetent. Struggle for precedence was a sign of 
the political power wielded by 
the rich feudal lords at the 
court of the grand prince. It 
greatly hampered the proper 
conduct of state affairs, although the fact that the Grand 
Prince of Muscovy decided 
all disputes for precedence 
among the boyars was evidence of his own growing 
power. 

The grand prince appointed his lord lieutenants to the 
newly conquered regions. 
These people governed the 
regions entrusted to them, 
held court, and collected 
taxes. For doing this they were "fed" at the expense of the population, 
according to ancient custom. Prior to Ivan III these requisitions in 
favour of the lieutenant governors were entirely unrestricted. Ivan III 
established a fixed ration, in kind or in money, and also determined 
the amount of legal dues and trading imposts. Special government 
offices, called ''prikazi'', were set up in Moscow. They were of two 
types. Some were in charge of territorial administration and the former appanages; others supervised different branches of the state 
administration, such as military affairs and finances. Of great 
importance in the administration were the grand prince’s clerks 
or scribes on whom all the routine of these institutions devolved. In 
1497 Ivan III issued a "Law Book" called ''Sudebnik'', establishing the 
form of government and legal procedure in the state.

===== Muscovy’s International Position =====
A strong army was organized under Ivan III. The concentration of power and finances, 
as well as the centralization of the army made it possible considerably 
to improve military technique. An artillery was created; craftsmen 
called in from Western Europe cast cannon in the newly built ''Liteiny Dvor'' (Foundry) on the Neglinnaya Biver in Moscow. 

During the reign of Ivan III the Russian state acquired a place of 
importance among the countries of Europe. The German emperor offered Ivan III the title of king, but Ivan declared that he needed nobody’s 
confirmation. The Pope, who had long wanted to bring Eastern Europe 
under his influence, also entered into relations with Muscovy. Trade 
between Muscovy and the mercantile countries of Western Europe, 
especially with the rich republic of Venice, became very brisk. Venetian envoys and merchants paid frequent visits to Moscow via the 
Black Sea and the Crimea. The 
grand prince needed European artificers. Through the medium of 
Venice he invited architects, gun 
craftsmen and other specialists to 
settle in Moscow. 

In 1453 Constantinople was 
conquered by the Turkish sultan, 
and the Byzantine empire fell. 
Turkish domination extended over 
the Black Sea coast, the Caucasus, 
the Balkans, and up the Danube 
as far as Vienna. Through the aid 
of Venice and the Pope, Ivan III 
formed a matrimonial alliance with Sophia Palaeologus, the niece of 
the last Greek emperor. Both Venice and the Pope hoped through this 
marriage to increase their influence in Moscow and induce Russia to 
fight against Turkey. They also counted on penetrating into the East — 
to India and China — through Russia. But Ivan III did not allow 
foreign interference in the affairs of the Russian state. 

Through the medium of the Crimea Ivan III entered into relations 
with Turkey, and Moscow merchants started travelling to that country. 
Relations between Russia and Persia were also established. Afanasy 
Nikitin, a merchant of Tver, after many adventures succeeded in making his way into India (1467-1472). He left an interesting description 
of his travels, "peregrinations over three seas" (the Caspian Sea, the 
Indian Ocean and the Red Sea). Afanasy Nikitin was one of the first 
Europeans to reach India. 

===== The Power of the Grand Prince =====
The position of the 
Grand Principality of Moscow underwent a radical change in the reign 
of Ivan III. Formerly it had been one of the many principalities of 
Northeastern Rūs. Now it was transformed into a strong consolidated 
state uniting almost the entire Russian people and had become a national Russian realm. The character of the grand prince’s authority 
also changed. Ivan III’s reign saw the beginnings of autocracy, that 
is, the unlimited power of the grand prince. Formerly the Grand Prince 
of Moscow was simply ''primus inter pares'' (first among his peers), the 
most powerful of the many Russian princes. Now he had become the 
sole "sovereign" of all Northeastern Rūs. Sometimes he even called 
himself the "tsar" (a contraction from the word Caesar). After the Turkish conquest of Constantinople, Ivan III began to regard himself as 
the direct successor of the Greek emperors. He adopted the imperial 
seal of Byzantine — the double-headed eagle. On state occasions Ivan 
III sat on a throne set in precious stones, and wore a crown or, as the 
Russians called it, the "Monomakh 
cap" (according to legend, it had 
been handed down by Vladimir 
Monomachus, who is said to have 
received it from the Greek Emperor Constantine Monomachus). 
The grand prince rebuilt his 
capital with great splendour. Before 
Ivan III Moscow had consisted almost exclusively of wooden buildings. Even the grand prince’s palace had been made of wood. During Ivan III’s reign the construction of stone buildings increased. 

Ivan III invited foreign masters 
and artificers to Moscow. Among 
them was the famous Italian architect Ridolfo di Fioravante, nicknamed Aristotle, who acquainted 
the Russians with the use of 
improved building methods and 
mechanical devices. The masters invited from abroad built the still-existent Kremlin walls and their towers, the stone cathedrals, the 
luxurious stone palace of which the "Red Wing" with figures of 
lions still survives, and the magnificent ''Granovitaya Palata''. Besides 
the Italian, Pskov artificers were also employed in decorating the 
capital. 

The consolidation of the various disunited principalities into a single state led to the cessation of feudal wars among the rival princes. 
But the formerly independent princes did not immediately resign themselves to the loss of their rights as rulers. They were not satisfied with 
their position as boyars at the court of the grand prince. They wanted 
an active part in the government and demanded that the grand prince 
listen to their counsels. So long as Ivan III was surrounded by a small 
group of faithful old Moscow boyars, he willingly listened to their 
opinion and tolerated criticism. But now at the grand prince’s court 
there were many new boyars, former appanage princes. Ivan III did 
not trust his enemies of yesterday, and the new boyars were constrained, 
sorely against their grain, to submit to the grand prince. The latter began to hold aloof from his boyars. He adopted towards them the 
haughty and proud mien of the Greek emperors. For disobedience to 
his orders boyars were either executed or exiled. The boyars attributed 
these changes to the influence of the Grand Princess Sophia. "As soon as the Grand Princess Sophia came with her Greeks," they said, "everything has become topsy-turvy." 

The church played an important part in strengthening the power 
of the grand prince. The clergy supported the unification of the Russian lands into a single state. It preached that the grand prince derived 
his power from God. Ivan III, for his part, granted the church numerous 
privileges, ensured the inviolability of its estates and ruthlessly persecuted the "heretics," that is, men who dared to criticize the tenets 
of the Orthodox church. The church therefore readily gave its services 
to the grand prince. 

===== Consolidation of the Russian Realm under Vasili III =====
The unification of the principalities of Northeastern Rūs was completed by Vasili III (1505-1533), the son of Ivan III. Pskov was incorporated under his rule in 1510. Vasili summoned the Pskov burgomasters and the boyars, who were Muscovy’s enemies, to Novgorod on the 
pretext of examining their complaints against the lord lieutenant, 
and had them arrested. A clerk of the grand prince was sent to Pskov, 
where, addressing the populace from the ''veche'' tribune he announced to them the demands of the grand prince, namely, that the ''veche'' in Pskov be abolished and that the city and its environs be governed by 
his lord lieutenants. The ''veche'' bell was removed and taken to Moscow. 
Three hundred Pskov families were sent to live in Moscow, and Moscow 
landlords were settled on their estates. 

It was also during Vasili’s reign that Ryazan was finally joined to 
the state. The last Ryazan prince, chaffing under his dependence on 
Moscow, leagued himself with the Crimean khan. The Ryazan prince 
was summoned to Moscow and his person seized, but he managed to 
escape and fled to Lithuania. His principality was annexed to Muscovy 
(1521). The whole of Northeastern Rūs was now united under the 
hegemony of Muscovy. 

Vasili III continued the struggle for the recovery of ancient Russian territories seized by the Lithuanian grand dukes as far back as 
the 14th century. In 1514 he laid siege to Smolensk and began bombarding the city. After three salvos a deputation headed by the bishop of 
Smolensk came to the grand prince at the Russian camp with the 
entreaty: "Do not destroy the city, take it in peace." Thus was 
the ancient Russian city of Smolensk re-incorporated into the 
Russian state. 
The power of Vasili III within the Russian realm was greatly strengthened. He was now "the sovereign of sovereigns over the entire Russian land." The former appanage princes had to serve him "at his entire will." The power of Vasili III, as foreigners wrote, "surpasses all 
monarchs of all world"; he "is absolute master of the lives and property of all." The Muscovites "openly declare that the will of their 
sovereign is the will of God." Vasili III removed the boyars from the 
government. He suffered no opposition on their part, and if a boyar 
contradicted him, he drove him out of the duma with curses. He decided all matters with two or three of his trusted servants, chosen for 
the most part among his clerks who were always at his beck and call. 

One of Vasili III’s contemporaries, the monk Philothei, in a message to the grand prince, expounded the ideology of the nascent autocracy. "Moscow," he wrote, "is the successor of the great world capitals: 
ancient Rome and the second Rome — Constantinople; Moscow is the 
third Rome, and there will be no fourth."

== Expansion of the Russian State and Its Transformation into a Multi-National Realm ==

=== The Reign of Ivan IV ===

==== The Rule of the Boyars. Reforms of the 1550s ====

===== The Rule of the Boyars =====
Vasili III died in 1533, leaving 
the throne to his three-year-old son Ivan, during whose minority 
the country was governed by his mother, the Princess Elena Vasilievna 
Glinskaya (1533-1538). Vasili’s brothers, appanage princes, tried to 
take advantage of his death to regain a share of their lost independence. 
But Princess Elena, who was an energetic and determined woman, im
mediately crushed all such attempts. After suppressing the turbulent 
appanage princes, Elena reigned supreme. She is said to have been 
poisoned by the boyars, who hated her. 

The sudden death of the princess untied the hands of the boyars. 
A hoy of eight sat on the throne. The boyars hastened to seize the power 
in their own hands, but they themselves were at variance with each 
other. The princes Shuiski and Belski became involved in a bitter strug
gle. The Shuiskis rallied their followers, broke into the Kremlin, forced their way into the palaoe, and seized their opponents. But the Shutski faction did not remain in power very long, Andrei Shuiski was 
killed in 1543, and the power passed to the Glinakis. The rule of the 
boyars lasted for about nine years. The boyars were opposed to the 
newly established system of centralized government. They turned 
the cities and volosts over to their relatives and supporters for 
"feeding"; the lieutenants appointed by them robbed the population. 
Taking advantage of this turmoil and anarchic state of affairs, the 
Crimean and Kazan Tatars made devastating raids upon Russian 
lands. 

In such an environment of boyar enmity and rivalry did the Grand 
Prince Ivan grow up, utterly neglected and scorned by those around 
him. He was a witness of revolting scenes of brawls and violence among 
the factious boyars. At the same time, young Ivan was precociously 
aware of the significance of his title of grand prince. As a child, during 
his mother *s lifetime, he remem
bered himself on ceremonial occasions, as when attending church or at receptions of am
bassadors, surrounded with impe
rial pomp and homage. After his 
mother *s death those very bo
yars who, as he himself put it, 
were usually not even concerned 
about his food and clothing, paid 
him obsequious honours at state 
receptions. Ivan learned to read 
at a very early age, and he read 
avidly. From the scriptural books 
and historical works that he 
read, he formed an idea of a sov
ereign vested with supreme 
authority. In this respect he was 
greatly influenced by the metro
politan Makari, an educated per
son for those times whopropound
ed the same idea in his writ
ings. The brutal and degrading 
environment of his youth engen
dered in Ivan a strain of cruelty. 

In 1647 the seventeen-year
old Ivan solemnly assumed the 
title of tsar. By this act he 
stressed the importance of the 
Russian state among the other European states and the unlimited power wielded by the Russian tsar within his own country. 

The return to the old system of appanages had a grievous effect 
upon the condition of the people, which resulted in a mutiny breaking 
out in Moscow in 1547 against the Glinski faction. The immediate cause 
was a gieat fire which destroyed a considerable part of the city. 
The populace had already been reduced to a state of despair by the 
tyrannies of the Glinskis. The Muscovites accused their oppressors of 
having started the fire; they shouted that Anna Glinskaya, the 
grandmother of the tsar, had set fire to Moscow by witchcraft. One 
of the Glinskis was killed; the others fled. The tsar himself took 
refuge in his village of Vorobyovo (the site of the present Lenin 
Hills). 

===== The Demands of the Nobility =====
When the uprising was sup
pressed, a man of hmnble origin, a clever and adroit official named 
Alexei Adashev, came to the head of administrative affairs. With the 
support of an influential coiut priest named Sylvester, Adashev formed 
a strong ruling group in which were included several powerful boyars. 
Thus was created an Izbranruiya rada (Council of the Elect) or, as it 
was otherwise called, ^'the intimate duma," without which the young 
tsar made no decisions. 

It was necessary as quickly as possible to satisfy the demands of 
the mass of the so-called military servitors— the petty provincial 
landlord nobility. The demands of these people found expression at 
the time in the writings of a nobleman by the name of Ivan Peresvetov. 
La the latter’s opinion, the tsar’s chief concern should be for the "mili
tary," that is, the nobility, whom he should provide with lands and 
salaries. Inasmuch as there was a dearth of land, he should begin the 
conquest of the ^^fodraiahaya zemlitaa^^ — the near-paradise — in 
other words, the Kazan khanate. To provide salaries for the nobility 
Peresvetov proposed that all the national revenue be concentrated 
in the royal exchequer. For this purpose the system of "feedings" 
was to be abolished. Legal procedure was to be improved by the com
pilation of a code of laws and the infliction of severe punishment for 
bribery and corruption. The realization of all these measures required 
a strong rule and the elimination of the remaining vestiges of feudal 
dismemberment. And inasmuch as the '^leniviye bogatiny^’ (the idle 
rich)— the boyars— would be opposed to this, Peresvetov counselled 
breaking their opposition by "terror," since, he claimed, "without such 
terror it is impossible to introduce truth in the kingdom." Such was 
the program of the nobility. One section of the boyars realized the 
necessity of making concessions .They rallied aroxmd Adashev and helped 
him pass a number of measures aimed at strengthening the tsar’s 
power and at the same time satisfying the most pressing needs of the 
nobility. 

===== Reforms of the 1550’s =====
The first thing to be undertaken was 
the reorganization of the administration. This was necessitated not so 
much by the demands of the nobility, as by the rapid growth of dissat
isfaction in the country with the old forms of government, which had 
found vent in the Moscow uprising of 1547. The ruling classes were 
faced with the menace of a popular ouibreaK. A convocation of the 
clergy, boyars and nobles is said to have been held in Moscow in 1549 
to discuss ways and means of pacifying the country. In 1550 a new 
code of laws was published, regulating legal proceduie and defining 
punishment for bribery. 

When Ivan IV was still a child, all cases of banditry had been 
withdrawn from the jurisdiction of the lord lieutenants who had turned 
them into a source of private income, and had been turned over 
to the district reeves. These reeves were elected by the population of 
the uyezds (counties) from among the local nobility. These elections 
were virtually manipulated by the nobility, and gave them great pow
er over the peasants of their district. 

In 1565, under great pressure from the provinces, the system of 
"'feedings’' was completely abolished. The lord lieutenants were re
placed by mayors and magistrates elected from the people. These 
mayors and magistrates administered justice and collected taxes from 
the townspeople and the cJiomiye (commonalty), that is, the state peas
ants. The revenue went directly into the exchequer. This measure 
was a very important step in the centralization of government. 

Simultaneously measures were taken to improve the position and 
military training of the nobility. 

In 1665 a code was published concerning military service: it defined 
the normal size of an estate whose landlord was obliged to appear "on 
horse and fully equipped" (about 150 hectares— 370 acres). If a military 
servitor possessed a larger estate, he was to provide a certain number 
of serfs, varying according to the size of his estate or patrimony. 

To ensure labour power for the nobility, the code of 1560 confirmed 
the law prohibiting peasants from leaving their landowners on 
any date other than St. George’s Day. Peasants living on the lands 
of the feudal lords were, as formerly, under the jurisdiction of the 
landowners’ court. All these measures were in the interests of the no
bility, ^.6,, the petty and medium feudal lords. The strengthening 
of the nobility was conducive to the strengthening of the regal power.

==== The Wars of Tsar Ivan IV ====

===== The Conquest of the Volga Khanates =====
At the beginning 
of Ivan IV’s reign, the whole of Northeastern Rūs was already united. 
It was during his rule that the subjugation of the neighbouring peoples, the conquest of their lands, and the gradual transformation of the Russian state into a multi-national state was begun. In the 
reign of Vasili HE the Kazan Tatars, supported by the Crimean than, 
had freed themselves from dependence on Muscovy. Ivan IV began 
preparations for the complete conquest of the Kazan khanate’. Besides 
the need of providing land and serfs for the nobility, other motives 
for this undertaking were incessant raids on Russian frontier territo
ries by the Kazan Tatars who desolated the land and carried off large 
numbers of captives. Furthermore, Kazan was the key to the Volga 
waterway which had an outlet to the Caspian, and to the routes beyond 
the Urals. The strengthening of Turkey on the Black Sea and in 
the Caucasus constituted a threat to Russia from the east via Astrakhan 
and Kazan. In 1550 a big expedition against Kazan had ended in fail
ure. In the spring of 1551 the city of Sviyazhsk was built on the land 
of the Mari, * on the hilly side of the Volga, opposite the city of Ka
zan. The Mari hillmen, who had till then been paying tribute to the 
Kazan khans, were now compelled to submit to the Moscow tsar. The 
following year the troops of Muscovy, using Sviyazhsk as their base, 
crossed the Volga and invested Kazan. The Tatars put up a furious resistance but were obviously outmatched by superior Russian forces which numbered 
150,000 strong, well equipped with artillery . 

With the co-operation of foreign engineers 
Kazan was encircled by a line of trenches; 
siege turrets were moved up to her walls, 
which were undermined. The total number 
of Tatar troops in the city was only 30,000. 

Supported by detachments which attacked 
the Muscovy troops from the rear Kazan 
held out for a month and a half. Finally, 
the walls of the city were blown up, and on 
October 2, 1562, Kazan was taken by as
sault. The struggle, however, did not cease 
with the fall of l^zan. The Tatar, Mari, 

Udmurt, Chuvash and Mordva peoples con
tinued to offer resistance to the conquerors. 

The rebels inflicted a telling defeat upon 
the Muscovy troops and even captured the 
waywode who had been sent out against 

them. Only after a struggle that lasted five ^ Russian man-at-arms, 
years were the local feudal lords won over oruzheinaya Falata 
by bribes to the Russian tsar. The lands 
of the former Kazan khanate were distrib
uted among the Muscovy military and the clergy. The popula
tion was reduced to serfdom. The Tatar feudal lords, who had retained 
part of their lands and were placed on the same footing as the Mus
covy nobility, also took a hand in the exploitation of the peasant pop
ulation of the Volga. Thus the toiling people of the Volga region 
came under a double yoke— that of the Russian and the Tatar feudal 
lords. With the conquest of Kazan the Bashkirs too recognized the 
supremacy of Russia. 

In 1555 Yediger, sovereign of the Siberian khanate, acknowledged 
himself the vassal of Muscovy and undertook to pay the Moscow, 
tsar annual tribute. 

In 1556 came the turn of Astrakhan: the Muscovy military servi
tors drove out the local khan and occupied the city. The entire Volga 
River was now in the hands of Muscovy. 

The acquisition of Astrakhan opened the way to the Caspian coun
tries. Taking advantage of intestine feuds among the petty princes of 
the Northern Caucasus , Ivan IV ordered a city to be built on the Terek, 
but abandoned it under pressure from Turkey. The Russian Cos
sacks, ''i.e.'', the free military servitors, refused, however, to accept this 
decision and continued to live on the Terek.
After the subjugation of Kazan and Astrakhan, the Eastern front was well fortified against Turkish aggression. Eut the Crimean khanate 
was still a great menace. \ear after year the Crimean Tatars made 
devastating inroads upon the Russian frontier regions and carried 
oiF thousands of prisoners, whom they then sold to Turkey. To 
render the southern borders safe against these raids, a fortified line 
was built, the so-called Tula abatis line, which consisted of a 
number of abatises, forts and other artificial barrages near the city 
of Tula. 

In order to keep a watch on the movements of the Tatars, detach
ments, or, as they were called, stamisi, were sent to the steppe, where 
they set up military outposts. Usually the observer kept a lookout for 
the enemy from a high tree or a tower, beneath which his comrades 
stood ready with saddled horses. As soon as a column of dust appeared 
in the distance, signalling the approach of Tatar horsemen, the observ
ers gallbped with the news to the next outpost, which relayed the in
formation further. In this way the news of approaching Tatars reached 
Moscow quicxly and made it possible to move troops promptly against 
the Tatars. 

At the end of the 1550 ’s the Moscow government decided to 
attack the Crimea. The Russian troops sailed down the Don and the 
Dnieper, and reached the Crimean coast. The war for the Baltic, 
begun in 1558, prevented the Russians from following up these 
successes

===== Beginning of the War for Livonia =====
The vital needs of 
the nation forced Muscovy to seek an outlet to the Baltic Sea. Russians 
possession of a seaboard was essential in the interests of defence, and 
as a means of developing her trade, and establishing cultural rela
tions with Western Europe. Isolated from the West by Livonia and Lith
uania, Muscovy, in its intercourse with Western Europe, was virtu
ally dependent upon these two states, who were interested in preserv
ing the backwardness of the Russian state and persistently prevented 
Western European master-workmen and skilled artificers from com
ing to enter the service of the Russian tsar. 

After the defeat of Grimewald the decline of the German knighthood 
went on apace and they were unable to maintain the independence of 
their domains. Supremacy in Livonia meant supremacy in the Baltic. 
And so the clash among Livonia’s neighbours — Lithuania, Sweden, 
Denmark and Russia — ^for the possession of Livonia was coming to a 
head. 

In January 1558 Ivan IV launched military operations against Li
voniaAfter several months of fighting, Narva, one of Livonia’s most 
important ports, was taken. Next Yuriev (renamed Dorpat by the Ger
mans), an ancient Russian city, was recovered for Russia. One town after another snrrendeied to Muscovy’s waywodes. Livonia fell beneath the blows of Muscovy’s troops (1561). Alarmed by the success of Russian arms, the neighbouring states intervened in Livonia’s affairs. 
Revel (Tallinn) placed itself under the protection of Sweden, Denmark 
took over the Island of Oesel, while the rest of Livonia went to Sigis
mundAugustus, the Polish king and Grand Duke of Lithuania. The 
Grand Master of the Livonian Older kept Courland, but merely as 
a vassal of the Polish king. Thus the German Order, which had once 
threatened Russia had now ended its existence. The partition of Livo
nia led to a new twenty years’ war of Russia against Poland, 
Sweden and Denmark. 

==== The Oprichnina ====

===== Organization of the Oprichnina =====
In Tsar Ivan's opinion the 
Idfranmya rada (Council of the Elect) was not prosecuting the war with 
Livonia with sufficient vigour. Tsar Ivan fell out with the Council 
soon after the capture of Kazan. The boyars on the Council endeav
oured to limit the tsar’s power. Adashev and the priest Sylvester con
sulted their boyar followers behind the tsar’s back. This attempt to 
limit the tsar’s power in the interest of a small group of boyars was 
strongly resisted by the mass of the military servitors. 

In the beginning of 1560 Adashev was banished from Moscow to 
honourable exile as waywode of one of the conquered Livonian cities, 
where he died shortly afterwards. At the same time Sylvester was se
cluded in a monastery. This was followed by the execution of their sup
porters. Many of the latter fled to Lithuania, to the enemies of the 
Russian state. Nevertheless in 1563 Muscovy’s troops won a very great 
victory: Polotsk, one of the largest cities on the Western Dvina and 
once the centre of a Russian principality, surrendered. King Sigis
mund-Augustus made peace overtures to the Moscow government 
and agreed to renounce all the cities and lands in Livonia conquered 
by the Russian troops, but Moscow was not inclined to make peace. 
In 1564 Prince Kurbski, a distinguished captain whom the tsar had 
placed at the head of the army operating in Livonia, betrayed his coun
try and fled to Lithuania after losing a battle. In Lithuania Prince 
Kurbski was richly compensated for his treachery with a grant of large 
estates, and appointed in command of one of the armies operating 
against his own country (Kurbski betrayed all Ivan’s military 
plans to the enemy), 

Kurbski ’s perfidy led to new executions. The boyars’ treason and 
the setbacks suffered in Livonia brought to a head the question of con
centrating all power in the 'tsar’s hands, completely destroying the 
boyars’ opposition, and wiping out the last traces of feudal disunity. 
These were the goals that Ivan IV sought to attain when he reorgan
ized the state administration in the beginning of 1565, Distrusting the 
boyars who surrounded him, the tsar suddenly quitted Moscow with 
a bodyguard of his noblemen. He stopped at the fortified Alexandrova 
Sloboda (a village within 100 km. of Moscow), whence he wrote an 
epistle to Moscow, addressed to the metropolitan, in which he recount
ed the treacheries of the boyars and reproached the clergy for having 
interceded on behalf of the traitors. The tsar announced that he abdicated 
the throne. In another epistle to the Moscow merchants and the peo* 
pie, the tsar wrote that 'Tie had no anger whatever against them," Under 
pressure of the Moscow populace, a deputation of the clergy and boyars 
went to Alexandrova Sloboda to implore the tsar to return to Moscow.

Ivan IV consented. He punislied tte boyar traitors, snmmoned the 
Zemski Sobor * (National Assembly) and set about organizing the 
oprichnina— B. "separate estate" or select corps. The populace of the 
capital, frightened by the possibility of the boyars seizing power, 
welcomed the establishment of the new order in the realm and the in
stitution of a reign of terror against the boyars. 

Ivan IV divided the entire territory of the realm into two parts: 
the z&mhchina, which was governed by the boyars’ duma, under 
the direction of the tsar, and the oprichnina, which was governed 
by the tsar himself. The oprichnina consisted of the finest regions 
located in the centre of the realm, territories which were of great 
military or economic significance. The city of Moscow was similarly 
divided. The oprichnina and the zemahchina boyars and waywodes 
functioned side by side. There were administrative bodies {prikazi) 
which governed the zemshchina and administrative bodies which gov
erned the oprichnina. The capital of the oprichnina was Alexandrova 
Sloboda (the village of Alexandrov) where the tsar felt himself more 
secure. The oprichnina was designed to crush the power of the great 
feudal lords and create a corps from among the small landowning nobility, which could be relied upon to support a strong centralized 
state authority. 

The rich feudal lords, especially the descendants of the appanage 
princes, had by no means lost their political power. 'The state/* 
Lenin points out, "broke up into separate lands, sometimes even into 
principalities which preserved the living traces of their former autono
my, and the peculiarities in their administration; sometimes they kept 
their own special troops (the local boyars went to war with their own 
regiments), special customs lines, etc/** Such a situation was incom
patible with the interests of the centralized feudal realm which was 
in the making. All princes and boyars were therefore removed from 
the territory of the oprichnina. Their patrimonies were taken over 
^for the sovereign’*; in exchange they were given other, by no means 
equivalent, estates in remote regions where they had no political 
ties whatever. Their former patrimonies were distributed among the 
petty nobility, who formed a select corps of oprichniki. The oprichnina 
was headed by Malyuta Skuratov, who enjoyed the confidence of 
the tsar* The chief task of the oprichniki was to uproot the remaining 
vestiges of feudal and boyar disunity. The oprichniki were selected 
from the small landowning nobility. With the help of the oprichniki 
the tsar inaugurated a reign of terror against the boyars. Ivan IV 
ruthlessly executed his enemies, and massacred the upper strata of 
the feudal lords including even their infants, and sparing neithe' 
their servants nor peasants. 

The attempts of the poweiful secular and ecclesiastical vassals 
to rally against the tsar failed. The metropolitan Philip, who belonged 
to the noble family of Kolychev, tried to intercede on behalf of the 
boyars, but was removed from office and exiled to a monastery, where 
he was secretly put to death. About 1567 the boyars entered into a 
far-reaching conspiracy, but it was discovered and the conspirators 
were executed. Kovgorod, in which the traditions of its former polit
ical independence were still alive, was also involved in the conspiracy. 
Some of the Kovgorodians, including the archbishop, were ready 
to betray their sovereign and transfer their allegiance to Lithuania, 
In January 1570 the tsar headed a large punitive expedition against 
Novgorod. For five weeks the oprichniki tortured the population of 
Novgorod and drowned them in the River Volkhov. The city itself 
was pillaged. From Novgorod, the tsar moved to Pskov; although 
he pillaged^ the city, no cruel executions took place here. 

The oprichnina satisfied the class interests of the petty and middle 
nobility. By means of the oprichnina the nobility extended their land 
holdings, receiving as they did the patrimonies ^confiscated from the boyars. The nobility also used the ofriohrmia to bring pressure to bear on the peasantry. The ojprichnihi seized the lands of the peasants, 
raised quitrents, increased the corvée, transferred peasants from other 
Jands to their own, and committed acts of violence.

===== Strengthening the Tsarist Autocracy =====
The ruination and par
tial extermination of the powerful feudal lords considerably strength
ened the power of the tsar and his nobles, and resulted in the estab
lishment of an autocracy. 

Prince Kurbski expressed the feelings of the boyars who had been 
the victims of the oprichnina. He entered into a correspondence with 
Ivan IV from Lithuania, in which he accused the tsar of wanton 
cruelty, and attempted to vindicate the boyars accused of treason. 
A tsar should govern jointly with the boyars and listen to their counsel, 
Kurbski urged upon the tsar. 

In his replies Ivan IV argued that the royal power was ordained 
by God. It was a heinous sin to disobey the tsar; all the tsar ^s subj'ects 
were his servants, whom it was his will to pardon or to execute. Any 
attempt to limit the power of the tsar was a crime, since it weakened 
the defence of the country. 

The struggle among the feudal lords grievously affected all sections 
of the population. When the estates belonging to the disgraced boyars 
were devastated, the peasants were the first to suffer. The expedition 
against Novgorod was attended by such widespread desolation that 
for a long time the peasant households could not recover from the 
effects. One of the participants of this expedition, a German in the 
service of the oprichnina, named Heinrich Staden, boasted that whereas 
he had set out on the Novgorod campaign with a single horse, he 
had come back with forty-nine horses and twenty-two carts laden 
with booty. 

In 1571 the Crimean khan, Devlet Girai, made an unexpected 
incursion. The khan marched xmopposed on Moscow, burnt the entire 
city with the exception of the Kremlin, and carried off an enormous 
number of captives. On attempting to repeat the raid the following 
year Devlet Girai was stopped at the Oka River by the zemski 
waywodes, who saved Moscow from being ravaged a second time 
(1572). 

The tsar realized the importance of uniting all the feudal lords 
against the coimtry’s external enemies. The oprichnina had by this 
time served its purpose. The last traces of feudal disunity had been 
eradicated. The boyars had been sufficiently weakened. Not only was 
the oprichnina no longer necessary, but it was even harmful, for it 
proved to have traitors in its midst. Executions began among the 
oprichniki themselves. In 1672 the oprichnina was abolished. 

Despite its negative aspects, the opriohnvm had promoted the 
centralization of the realm. "Nevertheless," says Staden, "the present Grand Prince has secured the establislinient of a single faith, a single weight, and a single measure throughout the land of Russia, through
out his realm! He governs alone. Everything that he commands 
is carried out, and everything that he forbids, does really remain 
forbidden. No one gainsays Mm, neither the clergy nor the lay
men." 

The autocracy promoted the consolidation of a centralized feudal 
realm and increased its powers of defence. It is therefore to be regarded 
as a beneficial influence in comparison with the former conditions 
of national disunity. The establishment of an autocracy was in the 
interests of the majority of the feudal class. The petty and middle 
nobility were able to secure their domination over the peasants and 
extend their estates only by means of the imlimited autocratic power 
of the tsar. 

The autocracy also served the interests of the merchants, since 
the survivals of feudal disunity hampered the development of trade 
among the various regions of the country. The merchants therefore 
vigorously supported all the ejfForts of the tsar to strengthen the unity 
of the realm. On the other hand, a powerful state facilitated the seizure 
of new markets in the east and the west. The autocratic state was built 
up at the expense of the toiling peasantry. To the latter the autocracy 
brought heavier feudal oppression, and permitted the nobility to 
enthrall the peasants on their lands still more. But in those days the 
people believed in a benign tsar, and looked upon him as their protector 
against the evil boyars. The people therefore gave Ivan IV the imposing 
title of Grozny (the Dread), which to them signified mighty, just, 
and mercilessly cruel to the enemy. 

==== End of the Livonian War ====

===== Progress of the Livonian War =====
The interference of Sweden, 
Poland and Lithuania in the Livonian war extremely complicated 
the situation in the Baltic. Muscovy now had to contend not with 
an enfeebled Order, hut with three powerful states. Ivan IV was sup
ported by the National Assembly, consisting of representatives of 
the ruling classes, which he had convened in 1566. The assembly 
was attended by the church prelates, the military servitors of the 
capital, landlords from the Lithuanian border districts, and the rich 
merchants. The assembly insisted upon continuing the war until 
the whole of Livonia was annexed. Meanwhile a temporary truce 
was signed. 

At the Diet wMch met at Lublin in 1569 a new union was formed, 
by which Poland and Lithuania constituted a single Polish-Lithuanian 
state, known mRizeczPos;poUta,xvil.^A by an elected king. The powerful Lithuanian feudal lords reluctantly consented to this arrangement, which 
threatened to curtail their own rights 
and privileges, but, as they them
selves said, **the enemy was at their 
heels." Stohermore, they not only 
received no support from the Byelorus
sian and Ukrainian feudal lords, who 
were subject to Lithuania, but even 
from their own szlachta (gentry). The 
szlachta advocated a rapprochement 
with Poland, because they counted on 
receiving Poland^s help against Mus
covy. The Lithuanian gentry also 
endeavoured to secure for themselves 
the privileges which the Polish gentry 
enjoyed. The Union of Lublin consid
erably strengthened the Polish-Lith
uanian coalition in the struggle against 
Russia. 

After the death of Sigismiind-Au
gustus, the Rzecz PospoUta elected 
Stephen Bathory as king (1676), With
in a short time he reorganized the 
army, creating a trained infantry of 
German and Hungarian mercenaries, 
and a good artillery. He replaced 
Polish-Lithuanian defensive tactics by 
a policy of active offensive. 

In 1579 Bathory suddenly ap
peared before Polotsk. After nearly a 
month’s siege, Polotsk was captured. 

Bathory did not confine himself to 
recovering the cities previously con
quered by the Russians; he crossed the old frontier of the Russian 
state, with the aim of conquering Russia— "rich India" as he called 
it. In the autumn of 1581 he invested Pskov with an army of 100,000, 
and after surrounding the city with a netwoik of trenches, proceeded 
to bombard it. When a breach had been made, the besiegers stormed 
the walls and seized two towers. The Russians blew up one of 
them and drove the enemy out of the other. The Poles withdrew after 
sustaining heavy casualties. Although the siege became a protracted 
one, Bathory was unable to take Pskov. 

Ivan IV was simultaneously obliged to wage war against Sweden, 
who likewise laid claim to the Baltic province and had captured the city of ReTel. The attempts of the Russian troops to capture Revel failed. The Swedes had carried their arms into Russian Karelia, and 
were conquering Russian cities. Thus Ivan IV met with failure on 
all fronts.

===== Conclusion of Peace =====
The heroic defence of Pskov made 
possible the opening of peace negotiations. A truce was concluded 
with Poland in 1582, Ivan IV renounced all his conquests in Livonia; 
Bathory returned the Russian cities he had taken. The next year 
a truce was also signed with Sweden, at the cost of abandoning to 
it the cities captured by the Swedes (Yam, Koporye, Ivan-gorod). 
Thus, the 25 years ’ war (1558-1683) for possession of the Baltic seaboard 
came to nothing. Here was reflected the backwardness of the Russian 
state. This war was, however, inevitable— -the blockade of Russia 
by Poland, Sweden and Germany had to be broken at all costs. The 
war also demonstrated to Western Europe the strength of the new 
realm and its readiness to fight for the Baltic. 

===== Ivan IV =====
Ivan IV died in 1584. He was a man of great 
natural ability and foresight. Well-educated for his time, he liked 
to write and wrote well, and possessed a keen and subtle intellect. 
Both in his home and foreign policy he mapped out the country’s 
aims and tasks with sagacity and profound judgment and prosecuted 
them do^?gedly and indefatigably. His conception of Russia’s needs of the Baltic seaboard does credit to his farsightedness, but his 
idea was not realized until the 
reign of Peter I. In his conflict 
with the boyars Ivan IV espoused 
the cause of a centralized feu
dal state, at the head of which 
he stood. He wrote to Kuibski: 
"Who can wage war against the 
enemies if the realm is rent by inter
necine strife Unbalanced and 
turbulent, Ivan IV was not always 
responsible for his actions. In a 
fit of ungovernable fury he struck 
his eldest son, Prince Ivan, a blow 
with his staff, which proved fatal. 
The reign of Ivan IV marked a very 
important period in the history of 
RussiaUnder him the Russian state put an end to feudal partition and became a united, powerful state capable of defending itself against its external enemies. During his 

rule the international prestige of Russia grew immeasuiabl3\ 

Ivan IV has gone down in folk songs and legends as a "dread" 
tsar who dealt out punishment to the boyar traitors. 

==== Subjugation of the People of Western Siberia at the End of the 16th Century ====

===== The Stroganov Domains =====
At the close of Ivan IV's reign 
Russia commenced the subjugation of Western Siberia, The first steps 
in this direction were undertaken by the rich salt traders, the Stroga
novs. Six years after the conquest of Kazan (1558) they secured permis
sion from the Moscow goveimnent to seize the lands akng the Kama. 
Having ousted the natives, the Mansi (Voguls), the Stroganovs started 
to set up salt works on which they employed the gratuitous labour 
of serf settlers. Por the protection of their domains the Stroganovs 
built foitified settlements, equipped with artillery, and gmrded by 
volunteers. The tsar made the Stroganovs absolute sovereigns on 
their patrimonies. The Mansi and other peoples whom the Stroganovs 
had robbed of their lands and salt mines frequently attacked the 
settlements. On occasions they united uith the Stroganov peasants against their common exploiters. In this struggle the Mansi were , aided by their tribesmen living east of the Urals. 

The head of the Siberian khanate at that time was Khan Kuchum. 
He killed Yediger, the vassal and tributary of the Moscow tsar, and 
took possession of Siberia. Ambitious to strengthen the Siberian 
khanate, Kuchum Khan endeavoured to extend his possessions west 
of the Ural Moimtains. He adopted the Moslem faith as a means of 
consolidating his power. 

===== The Expedition of Yermak =====
In the 16th century there were many 
"Kree Cossacks"* living in the Bon steppes on the outskirts of the 
Eussiau state. In the main they were peasants and thralls who had 
fled from the oppression of their feudal lords. The Stroganovs enlisted 
their services and organized them into military detachments for 
the purpose of protecting their existing possessions and extending 
them fuither eastward. In 1581 the Stroganovs fitted out a detachment 
of Cossack mercenaries whom they supplied with food, arms, and boats, 
and sent across the Urals under the leadership of ataman Yermak 
Timofeyevich. The detachment sailed up the Chusovaya Eiver, a trib
utary of the Kama, and after spending the winter in a mountain 
pass, hauled their boats in the spring by portage to one of the tributaries 
of the Tura River, which flows into the Tobol. The country was sparse
ly populated and the Cossacks advanced without hardly meeting 
any opposition. Coming out on the Tobol, they entered the territory 
ofthe Siberian khanate. They encountered their first serious resistance 
not far from the capital of the Siberian khanate, where the Tobol Eiver 
flows into the Irtysh. Here Kuchum had erected a fortified outpost 
and rallied a large lorce among his subject Tatar and Ural-Altaic 
tribes— the Mansi (Voguls) and the Khanti (Ostiaks), who met the 
Cossacks with a rain of arrows. The Cossacks retorted with their fire
arms and attacked the fort. A hand-to-hand fight ensued. The Khanti 
and Mansi were unable to withstand the onslaught and were the 
first to take flight, throwing the ranks of the Tatars into confusion. 
The Cossacks pursued and slew the fleeing enemy After this defeat 
Kuchum abandoned his capital and fled south into the steppe; 
Yermak and his Cossacks entered a deserted town. The neighbour
ing population hastened to submit to the conqueror. Realizing that 
it would be impossible for a small band to hold out among a hostile 
people Yermak sent messengers to Moscow informing the tsar of the 
conque^ of the Siberian khanate and asking for help. 

Wbfie waiting for assistance, the Cossacks went on with their 
subjugation of the outlying lands. The natives, armed only with 
spears and airows mostly tipped with bone instead of iron, were unable to contend against the Cossacks’ firearms. Despite its swift success, Yermak’s small detachment soon found itself in difficulties. Even the 
arrival of an auxiliary detachment of the tsar’s troops did not save 
the situation. Owing to a shortage of food, the Russian men succumbed 
to scurvy, Yermak himself perished after falling into an ambush laid 
for himby Kuohum. Yermak missed his footing in attempting to leap 
into his boat and was drowned in the Irtysh. The survivors were 
forced to abandon Siberia. The khanate capital was once more occupied 
by the Tatars.

===== Annexation of Western Siberia =====
It was not imtil after Ivan IV’s 
death that waywodes were sent into Siberia at the head of a strong force* 
In 1586 they built the city of Tyumen on the ruins of the Tatar city bear
ing the same name, whence they commenced the gradual conquest of 
the land. The following year a small settlement, Tobolsk, was 
founded on the Tobol not far from Kuchum ’s former capital, which 
had been completely abandoned by its inhabitants. Tobolsk be
came the centre of tsarist dominion in Western Siberia. The years 
that followed saw the conquest of the neighbouring tribes of JVIansi 
and Khanti. 

However, the struggle against Kuchum was not yet over. He contin
ued to roam the Baraba steppe and constantly harassed the frontier re
gions. It was not until 1598 that Kuchum suffered a complete defeat, 
one from which he never recovered. 

The relatively quick victory over the Siberian khanate is accounted 
for not only by the technical superiority of the Russian troops, but also by the absence of political imity among the Tatars. The Siberian khanate was split up into a number of small domains loosely held 
together. Kuehum’s vassals deserted him at the first rebuff. Still weaker 
was the association between the Siberian khanate and its -vassal 
Ostiak and Vogul princelings who had taken part in the khan's war 
only under compulsion and had fled at the first opportunity. 

The subjugated peoples were taxed with a tribute, which went into 
the tsar's treasury. The tribute was paid in sable skins and other 
valuable furs. In addition to the royal tribute the Siberian peoples* had to 
make gifts to the waywodes and the military. Hostages were taken to 
enforcethe payment of tribute. The government also resorted to bribes 
by rewarding the local princelings with miscellaneous gewgaws for 
regular payment of tribute and according them the "sovereign favour," 
''i.e.'', treating them with wine, etc. The Siberianfmrs were very valuable, 
and sold by the state in foreign countries they constituted an impor
tant source of revenue to cover military and other expenses of the 
realm. 

The military penetration of Siberia was closely followed by the infil
tration of Muscovy merchants .They carried with them cheap merchandise 
such as little bells, fragments of fabric, and various other trifles in 
exchange for which they acquired valuable furs from the Siberian peo
ples. The merchants would shamelessly get the taiga people drunk and 
obtain their sables and other furs from them for a mere song. But Russian 
peasants and Russian artisans also came to Western Siberia. They 
brought with them the technique of the Russian crafts and the three
fiield system of tillage, which was unknown to the Siberians before the 
appearance of the Russians. 

Thus in the 16 th century the dominion of the Muscovy tsars had extend
ed over a number of other peoples besides the Russians —the Kazan and 
Astrakhan Tatars, the Mordvinians, the Mari, Chuvashes, Udmurts, 
Bashfcirsand the peoples of Western Siberia. Thus Russia gradually 
became a multi-national state. The non-Russian, weaker peoples were 
forcibly incorporated into the powerful Russian nation. 

==== Crafts and Trade in Russia in the 16th Century ====
The coalescence of Eastern Euiope into a centralized multi-national 
state was only possible with the development of economic intercourse 
between the various territories of the realm. The development of money
commodity relations that took place in the 16 th century stimulated 
the economic unification of the oountiy and facilitated the process of 
political consolidation.

Petty handicraft production was prevalent in the cities and villages 
of Russia in the 16th century. In large cities such as Novgorod and 
Kazan over a hundred different kinds of handicraft production existed. 
There were masters who specialized in the manufacture of metal 
implements and various kinds of metal wares such as earrings 3 pins, 
nails, etc., and the sewing of sarafans, mantles, warm sleeveless jackets, 
etc. The products of the artisans were bought up by merchants who 
conveyed them to Siberia where they were exchanged for furs, which 
were then resold to foreigners. In this way connections were established 
between the various markets, which eventually became amalgamated 
into a single all-Russian market. 

Russia’s commerce with the East and the West developed con
siderably in the 16th century. With the conquest of Kazan and Astra
khan the entire Volga waterway proved to be in Moscow’s hands. 
This contributed to the stimulation of trade with Azerbaijan, Persia 
and Bokhara. 

Intercourse between Russia and Western Europe was impeded 
by the intervening territories of a hostile Poland and Lithuania and 
the domains of the German Order. 

The 16th century was the flourishing age of English commerce. 
English merchants were engaged in a strenuous struggle with the 
Spaniards and Portuguese, who had till then been masters of the sea. The sea route to India (around Africa) was in the hands of the Portuguese. The English merchantry equipped an expedition to seek 
a route of communication with India via the Arctic Ocean, that is, 
through that Great Northern Sea Passage which only became available 
for navigation under Soviet power. The expedition failed. But one 
ship, under the command of Captain Chancellor was carried by a storm 
into the White Sea and to the mouth of the Northern Dvina. Thus, 
in 1553 the English discovered a direct sea route to Russia. Chancellor 
entered into negotiations with the waywode of Kholmogor, who no
tified Ivan IV of the arrival of the English captain. The latter was 
summoned to the capital. Ivan IV fully appreciated all the advantages 
to be derived from direct relations with one of the richest mercantile 
countries of Europe. He granted the English the right of trading 
in the Russian empire on the most favourable terms. Russia’s own 
industry was poorly developed. The country received from England 
woolen and other fabrics, metals and metal wares, as well as spices 
and other re-exports from Asia, Africa and America. In exchange 
the English merchants took Russian raw materials such as furs, 
hemp, pork, etc., and also acquired eastern goods, especially 
Azerbaijan silks. 

Upon the heels of the English came the Dutch, who also began 
to use the White Sea route for trade with Muscovy. Soon after the 
death of Ivan IV the city of ^Archangel was built not far from the 

mouth of the Northern Dvi
na. Pairs at which Russian 
traders met foreign mer
chants were held here annu
ally, But the White Sea was 
covered with ice for a great 
part of the year, and could 
only be used in the summer 
months. This explains Russia’s persistent efforts to 
obtain a footing on the 
Baltic seaboard. 

Active commerce with West
ern Europe and the East 
had a verystimulating effect 
on the Russian home market. 
Traders were attracted east
ward, to the Urals, for valu
able furs; and nautical ex
peditions were equipped to 
the Gulf of Ob in quest of 
sable hunting grounds. 

==== Life and Culture in the 16th Century ====

===== Russian Customs in the 16th Century =====
During the period of 
the Tatar-Mongol yoke civilization in the Russian state was behind 
that of Western EuropePrevailing family customs were generally 
crude. The father was lord and master both of his serfs and his wife 
and children. 

A book was written in the 16th century, called Domostroi^ which 
was a sort of code of household instructions and worldly wisdom 
for the edification of the ruling classes. Much space in this volume 
is devoted to the upbringing of children and the schooling of a man’s 
wife, in *"the ways of virtue." The rules laid down by the Domostroi^ 
however, were not far removed from harsh reality. It recommended 
that one’s wife and children should be kept under rigorous constraint. 
The Domostroi was the favourite reading of literate Russians in the 
16th century. It has come down to us in a transcription made by the 
priest Sylvester for his son. 

===== Enlightenment and Art in the 16th Century =====
Very few Russians were literate. Even among the clergy there were men who were 
barely able to spell. Books were manuscript, and therefore rare and 
costly. Ignorant transcribers made many mistakes and omissions 
which often distorted the meaning. The greatest demand was for 
fortune-telling. books, which were looked upon as some sort of magic. 
The crudest superstitions were prevalent. 

Ivan IV realized that education was necessary in order to combat 
ignorance. In 1551 a synod (convocation of the clergy) was held in 
Moscow for the purpose of strengthening the authority of the church. 
At this assembly the tsar proposed that measures should be taken 
to remedy the more flagrant depravities in the life of the clergy (drunk
enness, etc.) and to spread enlightenment among the population. 
The clergy were directed to open up schools for teaching children 
to read and write. The decisions of the assembly formed a volume 
which was called Stoglm (meaning a hundred chapters), but these 
decisions were not carried out, Ivan JV did not succeed in creating 
his schools because there were too few people in Russia at that time 
sufficiently educated to teach. 

Despite all difficulties, Ivan IV founded a printing press in Mos
cow, which struck off several scriptural books. Two Russian masters, 
Ivan Eyodorov and Peter Mstislavets, worked at this printing press. 
The first Russian printed book appeared in 1564. Technically, it was 
done well. Many people in those days regarded printed books as the 
work of the devil. The semi-literate copyists feared that with the 
development of printing they might lose their means of livelihood. 
They incited a mob to wreck the "'printing establishment." Ivan 
Fyodorov and his colleague continued their useful activities in Byelonissia and the Ukraine and did mucli for the development of printing, Ivan IV was not to be daunted by his first failure. He set up 
a new printery in Alexandrova Sloboda, where the first Russian secu
lar book, a history of Russia’s and Poland’s international relations, 
was printed (1670). 

Vftiile literacy among the masses was poorly developed, there 
were educated people among the Moscow clergy and boyars in the 
16th century. They produced several outstanding writers, chief among 
whom was the metropolitan Makari. Under his patronage there arose 
a small group of literary men. Other books appeared, among them 
the Stepermaya Kniga (^'Book of Degrees," or 'Tedigrees") being 
a history of the rise of Muscovy from the Kiev Prince, Vladimir, and 
his grandmother, Olga, down to Ivan IV, Tsar Ivan IV himself was 
a writer of no mean gifts. Prince Kurbski, who was well educated, 
was also a man of letters. He was the author of the History of the Qrand 
Prince of Moscow book of reminiscences on the reign of Ivan IV, 
written in defence of the boyars and sharply hostile to the tsar. Kurb
ski ’s epistles to Tsar Ivan showed remarkable literary merit for the 
times.

An original and vivid native Hussian art came into being in the 
16tb century. An outstanding example of the architecture of those 
days is the church in the village of Kolomenskoye near Moscow and 
the St. Basil's Cathedial in Moscow, now turned into a museum. 
The cathedral, which was built by the Russian craftsmen Postnik
Yakovlev and Barma, is a veritable masterpiece of ancient Russian 
art. Pskov craftsmen were also famous as painters. Their work hears 
traces of Western influence. 

The spread of education was hampered by the fact that Russia 
was out off from the more cultured countries of Western Europe by 
Poland and Lithuania. Bearing that with the spread of education 
Russia would grow too powerful, the. Polish and Lithuanian feudal 
lords, as well as the Pope, the German emperor and the Swedish 
king did their utmost to prevent the establishment of regular inter
course between Russia and Europe.

== The Peoples of Russia in the 17th Century ==

=== The Peasant War and the Struggle against Polish and Swedish Intervention in Russia at the Beginning of the 17th Century ===

==== The Russian State before the Peasant War ====

===== Serfdom =====
In th© second half of the 16th century, the lot of the 
peasants became a very hard one. The landed proprietors, who were in 
financial straits, extended seignorial tilths and increased taxation of the 
peasants in money and kind. Formerly the extent of the peasant ’s 
servile tenures had been fixed by custom : the peasant tilled the seignori
al land and paid his quitrent "as of old." Ignoring this established 
tradition, the landlords, in the 16th century, themselves determined 
the payments and tenures of their peasants. The royal proclamations 
required the peasants to obey their landlords in all things, to 
do whatever the landlords told them to do, pay their quitrent, etc. 
Great expenditures had been incurred by the Livonian war. The 
monetary taxes imposed on the peasants and the urban trading popu
lation and craftsmen were increased manifold. Seeking to escape from oppietofaue labours taxation and bLaxvation, the peasants left their homes and villages en masse and went to the east, beyond the 
Volga; even more went south, beyond the Oka River, where lay the 
almost uninhabited black-earth steppe, and where a fugitive peasant 
could not easily be found. This migration of the peasants caused 
a serious void in the central regions. 

Deprived of labour hands the feudal estates of the landlords found 
themselves in a difficult plight. The landowners who suffered from 
a shortage of hands competed with others in trying to attract settlers 
to their lands. Every year on the eve of St. George’s Day this keen 
competition for peasant labour opened up anew. Most of the peasants 
lacked the moiiey to settle accounts with their landlords. The bai
liffs of competing landlords would then make the settlement on their 
behalf and convey the peasants to the estates of their new masters* 
Rich, powerful landowners would even organize raids on their neigh
hours’ estates, and carry off the peasants in chains to their new dom
icile. The lower and middle ranks of the nobles complained that 
they were unable to render the military service required of their de
populated estates. 

In 1581, during the defence of Pskov, Tsar Ivan IV temporarily, 
"pending the royal ukase" prohibited peasants to migrate on St. 
George’s Day. The year when the peasants were forbidden to change 
then* domicile even on St. George’s Day was called the first zapovedni 
year (year of interdict). The peasants were still more strongly fet* 
tered to the soil of the landlords.

===== The Cossacks =====
With the growth of serfage in the central regions 
of Russia there occurred a notable swelling of the ranks of the Cos
sacks at the end of the 16th century, due to the influx of the Russian 
population to the outskirts of the country— to the upper reaches of the 
Oka, the Bryansk forests and to the Don. The steppe, which abound
ed in wild fowl, and the rivers teeming with fish could sustain a rel
atively large population on the Don, The Cossacks felt safe here 
from the tyranny of the landlords and the tsar’s waywodes. They 
did not engage in agriculture, but imported corn from Russian cities. 

The Cossacks fought against Tatar and Turkish domination on the 
Azov and Black seas; when in luck they obtained good booty, which 
they divided among themselves. Sometimes the Cossacks also robbed 
Russian merchants on the Volga. All matters of common interest 
concerning expeditions, the division of spoil and relations with 
Moscow, were decided by the Cossacks at a meeting which was called 
Jcriog (circle). At these kncgs they also elected their chiefs-— atamam.

===== Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich =====
When Tsar Ivan IV (Grozny) died, 
he left two sons: Fyodor, a son by his first wife, Anastasia Roma
nova, and the infant Dimitry, by his last wife, Maria Nagaya. Fyodor 
Ivanovich became tsar (1584-1598). Tsarevich Dimitry, his mother, aud her kinsfolk, the Nagiye, were banished to the small town of XTglich, which was given the young prince as his "appanage." Indeed 
Tsarevich Dimitry was the last of the appanage princes (1584-1591). 

Tsar Fyodor was a sickly man of weak intellect and saintly char
acter, very ill-fitted to govern the country. He spent his days in 
constant prayer, had a special fondness for ringing the church bells 
and amused himself with his jesters. The people openly called the 
new tsar a "fool." The power and government of the kingdom were 
seized by the tsar’s relatives and his chosen boyars. Before long the 
boyar, Boris Fyodorovich Godunov, came to the fore. 

The Godunov family did not belong to the ancient Kussian peer
age. Boris Godunov had been intimate with Ivan IV during his last 
years chiefly because of his family ties. Fyodor Ivanovich was married 
to Godunov’s sister, Irene. Boris Godunov was a man of sterling 
qualities and ability,* but he had not received a "bookish" (''i.e.'', 
a theological) education. Unlike the well-born boyars he was no re
spector of time-honoured usage, nor did he shun foreigners. One of 
Boris Godunov’s first acts was to banish from the court those boyars 
who interfered with his rule. He himself received foreign ambassadors. 
He ran his household* on the lines of the royal court. 

Boris Godunov was fully alive to the significance of the church 
in the empire. The Orthodox church in Russia was administered by 
the metropolitan, resident in Moscow. The supreme authority in the 
Russian church was the patriarch who had his diocese in Constanti
nople, in a country that was subject to the Turkish sultan. At the 
end of the 16th century the patriarchs began paying visits to Moscow 
on "errands of charity" to crave money or sable skins. Taking advan
tage of the arrival of the Constantinople patriarch Jeremiah on such 
an errand of charity, Boris Godunov secured his consent to the insti
tution of a separate patriarchate for the Russian church. In 1589 
the first Russian patriarch was the metropolitan Job, one of Boris 
Godunov’s adherents. 

During the last years of Tsar Fyodor’s life the direction of affairs 
passed entirely into Boris Godunov’s hands. He did much to strength, 
en the royal power and the authority of the nobility in the provinces. 

The happy outcome of the second Livonian war (1590-1595) was 
of great significance. After the failure of the first Livonian war 
(1558-1583), Sweden had seized part of the Baltic seaboard that bordered 
closely on Muscovy’s domains. Sweden had cut Russia off from the sea 
and from economic and cultural intercourse with Western Europe, 
thus endeavouring to perpetuate Russia’s backward state of 
development. 

The year 1590 saw the begximing of war with Sweden for an outlet 
to the sea, a war for the recovery of old Russian Baltic lands. Accord
ing to the terms of the peace treaty concluded in 1595, restitution was made to Russia of her Kubsiaii territories on the coast of the Gulf 
of Finland and Lake Ladoga (Ivan
gorod, Yam, Koporye, Karela). 
Besides military affairs, a problem 
that particularly disturbed the 
government was that of providing 
the landlords with peasants, for 
the latter still continued their spon
taneous migrations to the border
lands of the south, east and north. 
In order to return a runaway peas
ant to his landlord it had to be 
proved that the fugitive had really 
livedon that landbefore he abscond
ed. To facilitate this task, a new 
census was made of the land and 
population, the work being com
pleted during the years of the war 
(1592-1693). All peasants who were 
thus registered as belonging to a 
certain landlord were henceforth considered his adscripts, or serfs. In 1597 a ukase was issued, establishing a five-year term for seeking out runaway peasants. Those 
not found during these five years between 1597 and 1602), 

remained at their new abodes.

In the second half of the 16th century, the population became so 
impoverished that many of the people borrowed money on the con
dition that they would work and serve on the estate of their creditor 
in lieu of interest. Such dependent people were called habalniye hho^ 
iopi— bondsmen, or serfs. After the death of their master they received 
their liberty. In this respect they differed from absolute bondsmen, 
whose servile tenure was hereditary. Formerly a freeman who worked 
for another in return for his bread and clothing was free to leave his 
master at will if he had not signed himself in bond. This ruling was 
now repealed. According to the ukase of 1597 any freeman who worked 
for another for his bread and clothing for more than six months became 
that personas serf. In this way Boris Godunov still further increased 
the servitude of the peasants and serfs in the interests of the landlords. 
The city poor likewise were increasingly oppressed. 

In 1591 a rebellion broke out among the townsfolk of Uglich in 
coimection with the following incident. 

The tsar’s younger brother, Tsarevich Dimitry, who had been 
living with his mother at Uglich, died on May 16, 1591. The morning 
of that day the nine-year-old Dimitry had been playing a knife game ^witH his playfellows, iinder the bupervision of his nurse and governess, when he suddenly dropped to the ground in an epileptic fit, and in 
doing so fell on the blade which he was holding in his hand, and 
cut Ms throat. The cries of the women brought his mother, Maria 
I^'agaya, out of the house. She began to shout that the boy had been 
muidered by some men sent by the Moscow scribe Bityagovsky. The 
crowd that gathered took advantage of the occasion to start a rebellion. 
The town poor demolished the scribe cpttage and destroyed all the 
records concerning their bondage. Bityagovsky and several of his 
friends were killed. Streltsi (soldiers) arrived from Moscow with 
a committee of enquiry, headed by Prince Vasili Shuiski. The latter 
pronounced that the tsarevich had accidentally inflicted the fatal 
wound upon himself. The Ts'iritsa Maria Nagaya was made to take 
the veil, while her relatives and many people of XJglioh were exiled 
for taking the law into their own hands. A rumour was spread among 
the people that the tsarevich had been killed on Boris Godunov’s 
orders.

===== Tsar Boris Godunov =====
With the death of Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich 
in 1598 the Rurik dynasty of Russian, tsars came to an end. 

On the death of Tsar Fyodor, Boris Godunov, having won the 
support of the nobility, had no dangerous rivals. The National As
sembly {Zemsky Sobor) which met in 1598 and on which the nobles 
and merchants were in the majority, elected Boris Godunov as the 
Tsar of Muscovy. Boris Godunov continued Ivan IV ’s policy of intro
ducing order into the realm. He too persecuted the descendants of 
the ancient families of princes and boyars. The scions of the late boyar, 
Nikita Romanovich Zakharyin, or the Romanovs, as they came to» 
he called, gave him special cause for anxiety. The Romanovs were 
related to Tsar Fyodor, and the eldest of them, Fyodor Nikitich, 
had many followers among the nobility and part of the townsfolk. 
Boris Godunov made use of secret information against the Romanovs 
to accuse them of plotting against the tsar, and exiled all the brothers* 
to the north, The oldest of them, Fyodor Romanov, was tonsured 
under the name of "Father Philaret." Godunov triumphed over his 
boyar enemies. But he was now confronted with a new, ominous dan
ger— the peasant movement. 

In 1601 a famine set in. Rains aud early autumn frosts had killed 
the harvest. The following spring the fields under winter rye yielded 
no crops. The peasants did not even have seed for the spring sowing. 
The starving population lived on weeds and birch bark, '\^ole villages 
died out. Even in Moscow corpses lay unburied about the streets. The 
terrible famine lasted three years (1601-1603). The landlords, monas
teries aud merchants, who had large stocks of corn, made the most 
of the high prices on corn to build up large fortunes. The boyars aud 
the uobles refused to feed their serf domestics aud drove them oiSF their estates. Fearing hunger riots, Boiis Godunov gave ordeis for corn to be distributed from the state granaries, but the distributors 
got more of it than the famine-stricken people. Government stocks 
were inadequate to feed the starving population. On the other hand 
the landowners, including the monks and the patriarch, had full 
granaries, but they delayed releasing corn for sale, in the expectation 
of prices mounting still higher. 

The starving peasants and serfs started forming detachments and 
attacked the landlords and merchants. Others left for the Bon and 
the Bryansk forests. In 1603 a large detachment of peasants and seifs, 
under the leadership of IGilopko Kosolap made its way to the out
skirts of the capital. A fierce battle took place, during which the 
tsar’s waywode, Ivan Basmanov, was killed. The royal troops had 
great difficulty in driving off the insurgents from the capital. Khlopko 
Kosolap, covered with wounds, was taken prisoner and soon died. 
Many of the peasants and serfs were hung by the tsar’s waywodes 
on trees along the roads leading to Moscow.

==== Attempts of the Polish Gentry to Subjugate the Russian State. False Dimitry I ====

===== The Polish Minion, False Dimitry I =====
Soon after the conclusion 
of truce with Muscovy, the Polish king, Stephen Bathory, conceived 
a new plan for conquering Russia. However, after his death (in 1686) 
Poland’s internal condition did not permit her to begin open warfare. 
Under the new king, Sigismund III, Poland decided to take advantage 
of the peasant uprising in Russia to seize and subjugate the country. 
To accomplish this purpose Poland used the pretender— False Bimitry I 
as their tool. This plan of intervention was energetically supported 
by the Pope. The rumour that Tsarevich Bimitry had not been mur
dered at Uglich but had escaped and was living in Poland was spread 
soon after Boris Godunov ascended the throne. At this time a man. 
appeared at the castle of Adam Wisniowiecki in the Ukraine who 
declared himself to be Dimitry, the son of Ivan IV. When the Moscow 
government heard of the appearance of the impostor in Poland, it 
declared the False Bimitry to be no other than the former monk, 
Grigofi Otrepyev, born of a family of petty Kostroma nobles. In his 
youth he had wandered from monastery to monastery, had spent some 
time in Moscow, and then fled to Poland with three other monks. 
The identity of the False Bimitry is still obscure. 

The news of the appearance of False Bimitry was enthusiastically 
greeted by the Polish gentry. False Pimitry was removed to a relative 
of Wisniowiecki ’s, the waywode Yuri Maiszek of Sambor. In the 
spring of 1604 King Sigismund III received the False Dimitry in Cracow. After negotiations with the gentry and szlachta it was decided not to begin open war against Kussia, but to permit all the gentry 
who wished to do so, to enlist in False Dimitry's army. All prepara
tions for the campaign were made in Sambor. Its organizers were 
powerful Polish magnates avid for conquest of new domains. They 
were readily joined by the petty Polish gentry who dreamed of rich 
spoils in Russia. 

False Dimitry made specious promises to the Pope, the Polish 
king and the gentry. He adopted the Catholic faith and undertook 
to convert the Russian population to the Roman church. He also 
promised the king the city of Smolensk and the land of Seversfc (Cher
nigov). To Mniszek's family False Dimitry planned to turn over 
the administration of the Novgorod and Pskov regions, as well as 
money and jewels from the tsar's treasury. On these terms Yuri Mniszek 
agreed to the marriage of his daughter Marina to False Dimitry; 
Marina was to become the Russian tsaritsa. 

Late in the autumn of 1604 False Dimitry and a Polish contingent 
of 4,000 soldiers and several hundred Russian Cossacks crossed the Dnieper near Kiev. The first cities surrendered to False Dimitry practically without offering any resistance. Cossacks, fugitive peas
ants, serfs, the petty military servitors— all who were dissatisfied 
with Boris Godunov— rallied to False Dimitry. At fii'st the misled 
peasants really believed that False Dimitry was the son of Ivan Grozny 
and hoped that he would free them from serf bondage. Towards the 
end of 1604 the tsar’s army went to the relief of Novgorod-Seversk 
which was besieged by the Poles and False Dimitry. A battle took 
place near this city, but without any decisive result. False Dimitry 
tried to avoid the tsar’s troops and headed for Sevsk. In January 
1605 he was defeated at the village of Dobrynichi, near Sevsk and 
fled to Putivl with the remnants of his force. 

In spite of his victory, Boi is Godunov’s position became increas
ingly worse, as ever new detachments of insurgents kept appearing 
in many places. The tsar’s main forces were engaged in besieging the 
small fortress of Kromy in which, a body of Don Cossacks who had 
joined False* Dimitry had entrenched themselves. But the tsar ’s troops 
refused to fight; many of the soldiers deserted from the army and 
went home. 

In April 1605 Tsar Boris Godunov suddenly died. His sixteen
year-old son, Fyodor, was proclaimed tsar. The death of Boris Go
dunov removed the last barrier to the progress of the pretender. At 
Kiomy the remnants of the tsar’s troops, under Peter Basmanov, 
went over to False Dimitry, 

The boyars, eager to see the downfall of the hated Godunovs, 
hastened to effect a coup in favour of the alleged Tsarevioh Dimitry, 
with the intention of subsequently seizing the power themselves. 
Prince Vasili Ivanovich IShuiski retracted his former testimony con
cerning the death of Tsarevioh Dimitry at Uglich, and declared that 
Godunov had wanted to kill the tsarevioh, but that the latter had 
escaped death, that he was alive and on his way to the capital. When 
False Dimitry’s heralds arrived in Moscow with his message to the 
people, the boyars assassinated Tsar Fyodor Borisovich and his mother. 
False Dimitry approached Moscow without encountering any further 
resistance. In June 1605 the Poles made their entry into the Russian 
capital.

===== False Dimitry in Moscow =====
Soon after False Dimitry, with the 
aid of the Poles, seized the throne of the tsar, he revealed his true aims. 
The lot of the peasants was in no way alleviated. The fugitive peasants, 
except those who had left during the famine because of their inability 
to feed themselves, were returned to their former landlords. The 
Polish gentry who had come with False Dimitry aroused the general 
indignation of the Russian population by their arrogant and insolent 
behaviour. False Dimitry surrounded himself with a bodyguard of foreign mercenaries. He sent large sums of money to Poland. In Moscow the people openly complained against the tsar. 

In the spring of 1606 Marina came to Moscow, in the company of 
a huge suite and new detachments of the Polish gentiy. The marriage 
of Marina and False Dimitry was noisily celebrated and wassail was 
held for several days. The drunken szlachta committed new excesses. 
Hatred for the Poles, who conducted themselves so insolently in the 
Russian capital, reached such a pitch that a popular outbreak could 
be expected any day. 

The boyars took advantage of this discontent on the part of the 
population to form a conspiracy, headed by Prince V. I. Shuiski . 

At dawn on !May 17, 1606, the tolling of a bell gave the signal 
for an alarm throughout the capital. The Muscovites shouted to each 
other: *'On against the LitvasI Down with the Litvas!" (The Russians 
called the Poles "Litvas."} 

False Dimitry learned of the danger when a crowd had already 
filled the square in front of the palace. In attempting to escape he 
leapt out of a window, and seriously hurt himself in the fall. He was found and killed. A few days later the body of False Dimitry was burnt, the ashes being rammed into a cannon and shot back in the 
direction whence he had come. Meanwhile, the populace throughout 
the city were engaged in a massacre of the Polish gentry, who had 
barricaded themselves in their houses. Using* knives and stones the 
Muscovites attacked the houses which the well-armed Poles had con
verted into small fortresses. About 2,000 of the Polish gentry and 
soldiers were killed; the others suriendered. 

Fearing the popular rebellion, the boyars hastened to stem it. 
What they needed first of all was to lestoie the royal authority. They 
accordingly proposed making the boyar V. I. Shuiski, who came from 
an ancient princely family, the tsar. The boyars were reluctant to 
convene the National Assembly for this purpose, fearing that most 
of the nobles and townspeople would be opposed to the boyars, Vasili 
Shuiski was therefore proclaimed tsar without any election. His name 
was shouted out to a crowd of people that had assembled before the 
Kremlin on May 19, and which consisted for the most part of Shuiski 
faction. 

Thus the first attempt of the Poles to place their own piotegS on 
the Moscow throne ended in utter failure. The Hussian people crushed 
the interventionists. 

===== Tsar Vasili Shuiski (1606–1610) =====
Vasili Shuiski gave the boyars 
his pledge that he would rule the country in agreement with them. The 
tsar was sworn in on the cross, pledging himself not to pass sentence 
of death, or confiscate the property of a convicted man’s relatives 
without the consent of the boyars’ duma. Proclamations were promul
gated to the diflFerent cities, in which Shuiski proved his right to 
the throne. The wealthy boyars hastened to seize the best and most 
lucrative posts. 

The ascension of Vasili Shuiski to the throne provoked a fresh out
burst of dissatisfaction in the country. The nobles would not be recon
ciled to the usurpation of power by the boyars. Disturbances broke out in 
Moscow itself, among the poor townsfolk. Fearing an uprising in the capi
tal, the boyars quickly prepared the ICremlin for defence, mounted can
non on its walls, and removed the permanent bridge which had been 
thrown across the moat at the fortress gates . 

==== Peasant Insurrection under the Leadership of Bolotnikov ====

===== The Bolotnikov Movement =====
In the autumn of 1606 a peasant war 
broke out in the southwestern cities, where numerous fugitive peasants 
and serfs had collected. They were joined by Cossacks and the petty 
ranks of the military servitors. On the Middle Volga the Mordvinians 
joined in the rebellion together with the Russian population. An insurreotion broke out in the south, in Astrakhan, northwest of Moscow the peasants and townsfolk of Tver, Pskov and Novgorod, rose up 
in revolt. Thus, within a short space of time a considerable part of the 
country was swept by a wave of popular uprisings. 

These rebellions, however, were sporadic and lacked coordination. 
They were simply isolated local outbreaks . While a rebellion was starting 
in one region it had already run its course in another. Thus the rebels 
were rarely in a position to help one another. The most powerful 
movement was that of the peasants, serfs and Cossacks led by Ivan 
Bolotnikov (1606-1607). 

In his youth Bolotnikov had been a boyar’s serf. Having fled to 
the Cossacks on the Don, he fell into the hands of the Tatars, who sold 
him into captivity to the Turks. For a while Bolotnikov worked at 
the oar on a galley, where he, like the other prisoners, was chained 
to his seat and "encouraged" with a whip. Bolotnikov succeeded 
in escaping from Turkish captivity. After visiting various Euro
pean countries he made his way back to the Russian frontiei. 
An uprising against Shuiski having just been started in the 
southwest border territories, Bolotnikov took command of the rebels. 
According to the accounts of contemporaries, he was a stalwart man of 
great physical strength, and remarkable intrepidity and bravery. 
Foreigners called Bolotnikov a daring and experienced "knight 
errant.’^ In his battles against the tsar’s troops he revealed real 
military talent. 

Wherever Bolotnikov’s detachments made their appearance 
the peasants rose up against the landlords and joined the insurgents. The 
poor townsfolk also went over to his side. Bolotnikov’s army movea 
swiftly on Moscow from Putivl, via Kromy, Serpukhov and Kolomna, 
routing the tsar’s detachments as it advanced. At Yelets the insurgents 
found large stores of arms which had been laid up by False Dimitry I, 
On the road to Moscow Bolotnikov was joined by Tula nobles (headed 
by Istoma Pashkov) , who were dissatisfied with the boyars ’ govern
ment, and also by the brothers Prokopi and Zakhar Lyapunov, who led 
the Ryazan landlords. Supplemented by these detachments of nobles, 
Bolotnikov’s army grew much larger, but it was less homogeneous and 
less reliable. 

In the middle of October 1606 Bolotnikov appeared before Moscow. 
The capital was well protected by triple stone walls. Bolotnikov was 
unable to take it by storm, and he set down to a siege. He wrote appeals 
and circulated them among the population. The boyars called them 
"''prelestniye''" ("words of the tempter"). Bolotnikov called upon the peas
ants and serfs to exterminate the boyars and landlords, and promised 
them the land which had been seized by the feudal lords. The nobles 
in Bolotnikov’s army realized that the peasants, their class enemies, 
represented a greater danger to them than the boyars’ government. The Ryazan nobles and the Lyapunov brothers went over to Shuiski.

In the beginning of December the tsar’s troops, having received large 
reinforcements, attacked Bolotnikov’s camp at the village of Kolomen
skoye, near Moscow. At the height of the battle the Tula nobles, under 
Tstoma Pashkov, also went over to Shuiski, their treachery facilitating 
the victory of the tsar’s troops. Bolotnikov with the remnants of his 
detachment retreated to the south and entrenched themselves in Kaluga. 
Desirous of winning the nobles over to his side, Tsar Vasili Shuiski 
extended the period for the search of fugitive peasants from five to 
fifteen years. In the spring of 1607 a large tsarist army laid siege 
to Kaluga, but fresh detachments of rebels came to Bolotnikov’s aid. 
Shuiski ’s troops suffered defeat and were forced to raise the siege. 
Bolotnikov movedtoTula, where he was joined by fresh Cossack contin
gents. Among them was a new pretender who claimed to be Peter, the 
son of I^odor Ivanovich, though Tsar lyodor had not had any sons. 

The summer of that year Shuiski again tallied a big army. 

Por four months Bolotnikov defended himself in Tula against 
an overwhelmingly superior foe. In spite of hunger and a shortage of 
arms, the besieged made daring sallies every day and inflicted heavy 
losses upon the tsar’s army. The tsar’s waywodes feared that their 
troops would be unable to endure a winter siege. A dam was therefore 
built near Tula, to stop the flow of the Upa Kiver . The water rushed into 
the city and flooded what remained of the food and powder supplies. 
Only then did the besieged enter into negotiations for surrender. 
Tsar Vasili Shuiski promised to give all the rebels their freedom. But 
he did not keep his word. Ivan Bolotnikov was sent north, to Kargopol, 
where he was blinded and drowned. Many of those who had taken part 
in the uprising were made Jcholopi (household slaves) and the serf peas
ants were handed over to the nobles. 

The Bolotnikov rebellion, like all the other peasant uprisings in 
the period of feudalism, ended in the defeat of the rebels. These peasant 
uprisings were spontaneous outbreaks; the peasants and serfs were poorly 
armed; they had no military training, and could not wage a protracted 
• war against the better organized and better armed troops of the tsar. 
The peasants felt the injustice and oppressiveness of feudal power, 
but did not know how to overthrow it. They believed in a "benign" tsar 
and hoped to obtain their emancipation from him. 

Bolotnikov perished, his detachments were dispersed, but the revolt 
against Shuiski continued. On the Volga, the peoples enslaved by tsar
ism, the Mordvinians and the Mari (Cheremissi) , rebelled. Together with 
the Eussian peasants and serfs they besieged Nizhni Novgorod, The 
tsar^s troops drove the rebels away from the city, but in the autumn 
of 1608 the whole Middle Volga was once more in the throes of a rebel
lion. 

==== Polish and Swedish Hostilities in 1608–1610 ====

===== New Polish Minion, False Dimitry II =====
The Poles did not cease 
their aggressive activities against Russia. On the very day that False 
Dimitry I died, the Poles spread a rumour in Moscow that another per
son had been killed, instead of him. However, the Poles were not imme
diately able to send fresh troops to Russia owing to trouble within their 
own country where malcontents among the Polish gentry had raised an 
insurrection against the king for attempting to encroach on their liber
ties. The insurgents were defeated by the king ’s troops in 1607, when Si
gismund HI was once moie free to turn his attention to Russian affairs. 
In the autumn of 1607 a new Polish minion, who likewise assumed the 
name of Tsarevich Dimitry Ivanovich, False Dimitry II, appeared on 
the frontier of Muscovy .The Poles sent the new False Dimitry large mili
tary forces, including contingents of Polish regulars. A relative of the 
Lithuanian chancellor, Jan Sapieha, brought up a detachment of 7,500 
soldiers (infantry and cavalry). Hetman Rozinski came with a detach
ment of 4,000 men. Detachments of Don and Zaporozhye Cossacks also 
joined False Dimitry H. 

In the spring of 1608 the tsar’s troops were defeated in a two
day battle near Bolkhov. False Dimitry II^s main forces moved on to
wards Moscow by way of Kaluga and Mozhaisk. They made an attempt 
to seize Moscow, but were repulsed. The Poles then set up a fortified 
camp near the village of Tushino, on the high bank of the Moskva Rjver, 
not far from the capital. False Dimitry II was named the 'T?ushino tsax^’ 
or the '"Thief of Tushino" after the name of the Tushino camp 
(political criminals in Muscovy were called thieves). 

At Tushino False Dimitry II brought his army into fighting trim. 
Ivan Zarutsky, one of the Polish szlachtahj descent, took command of 
the Cossacks. The general command was left in the hands of the Poles. 

Moscow’s position became very grave. Famine set in in the city. 
Discontent with the tsar increased. Many boyars and nobles foreseeing 
the speedy downfall of Vasili Shuiski, went over to the Tushino camp, 
where False Dimitry II granted them charters to certain estates, and 
other awards. Some of the nobles changed sides several times, going hack 
and forth between Moscow and Tushino. These people were called 
^erelyoty (birds of passage). 

EfeiVing invested Moscow the Tushino detachments began to spreaci 
in various directions from the capital. The Troitsk-Sergiyev Monastery 
(70 km. from Moscow, now called Zagorsk) behind whose high fortress 
walls the surrounding peasant population entrenched themselves, heroic
ally resisted the Polish invaders. The monastery’s defenders withstood 
the fierce cannon bombardment and bravely repulsed all attacks of 
the enemy, inflicting heavy losses upon the Poles during their sallies. 
But the Tushino troops met with considerable success in the region of the Upper Volga. The rich cities of the Volga and the north, such as \aroslavl, Vologda, Kostroma and others, recognized the 
power of False Dimitry II. Many people really believed they were 
fighting against the hated tsar of the boyars and for "Tsarevich 
Dimitry." 

===== Partisan War Against the Poles =====
Slowly people’s eyes were opened 
to the imposture. Poles began to make their appearance in the cities, 
confiscating the merchants’ goods and imposing heavy taxes upon the 
peasants and craftsmen. In the rural districts Tushino detachments 
robbed the peasants, took away their corn andhay, killed the inhabit
ants and burnt their houses and farms. The Polish gentry took Russian 
cities and estates on "indemnity," that is, they collected revenue from 
them for their own benefit. The peasants in the countryside, and petty 
craftsmen, military servitors and tradespeople in the cities began to 
fight the invaders. Peasant detachments sprang up, commanded by 
peasants, serfs, or military servitors. They boldly attacked the well
armed Polish troops. By the end of 1608 partisan warfare was rife 
throughout the country. 

Tsar Vasili Shuiski, realizing that he would not be able to cope with 
the rebels and Poles of Tushino and fearing the peasant disturbances in 
the country, had recourse to foreign intervention, soliciting the help of 
the Swedish king, Charles IX. According to the treaty concluded between 
them, the city of Karela (Kexholm) and its county were ceded to Swe
den who, on her part, promised Vasili Shuiski military assistance in 
driving out the Polish detachments and restoring the tsar’s power in 
the country, Sweden in fact had long been waiting for an opportunity 
to seize Russian frontier territory and again cut Russia off from the sea. 
The Swedish king sent a strong body of troops under Jacob Delagar
die to Novgorod in the spring of 1609. This force consisted of 15,000 mer
cenaries— Swedes, Germans, English, Scots, French, and others to which 
the tsar’s nephew, Prince M.V. Skopin-Shuiski attached himself with 
his Russian soldiers. The Russo-Swedish detachment left Novgorod 
for Moscow, advancing through Tver, and liberating on the way the 
towns which had been seized by the Tushino troops.

===== Outbreak of War Between Russia and Poland =====
The resistance 
offered the Polish aggressors by the Russian people proved to the 
Polish gentry that the support they were rendering the pretenders 
was not achieving its goal. Meanwhile, Russia was ruined by the 
protracted war. Vasili Shuiski ’s government was tottering. The Polish 
szlachta decided that this was an opportune moment to deal Russia 
a decisive blow, and extend Polish domains at the expense of her 
weakened neighbour. Throughout the summer of 1609 Polish detach
ments attacked Russia’s frontier lands and pillaged the Byelorussian 
peasants. In the autumn a large Polish army under King Sigismund III 
crossed the frontier and laid siege to Smolensk.

After Poland had comiiienoed open hositlities against Russia, 
she no longer had any need of False Dimitry II. Sigismund HI there
fore recalled the Poles who were in the service of False Dimitry II to 
his own army standing before Smolensk. In the winter of 1609 the 
Russo-Swedish troops of Skopin-Shuiski and Delagardie, who had 
marched out from Novgorod were drawing close to Moscow. At their 
approach the Poles lifted the siege of the Troitsk-Sergiyev Monastery. 
Early in January 1610 False Dimitry II, deprived of Poland’s support, 
fled from Tushino to Kaluga, followed hy some of the Poles, who still 
hoped to take Moscow with his help. The Russian boyars and nobles 
in the service of False Dimitry H decided to come to terms with the 
Polish king. They agreed to recognize the Polish Prince Wladislaus 
as the tsar of Muscovy, and on February 4, 1610, concluded a cor
responding agreement with Sigismund III. Sigismund, on behalf of 
his son Wladislaus, promised not to change the state system of Muscovy, 
to maintain the power of the nobles and their landed property, and to 
return the fugitive peasants to them. The Tushino camp broke up 
completely. In March 1610 Skopin-Shuiski and the Russo-Swedish 
troops entered Moscow. Skopin-Shuiski died suddenly soon afterwards. 
Both Shuiski and the Tushino boyars had resorted to foreign inter
vention because they feared the Russian people and had no faith in 
its powers. 

Smolensk, besieged by the Poles, defended itself stubbornly. 
While continuing his siege of Smolensk, the Polish king decided to 
send an army under the Polish hetman Zolkiewski to take Moscow. 
The tsar sent an army, under the command of his brother, Dimitry 
Shuiski, against Zolkiewski. Both armies met near the village of 
Klushino in June 1610. During the battle the German and Swedish 
mercenaries betrayed the Russians and went over to the Poles. The 
tsar’s troops were defeated and the way to Moscow was open. The 
Poles granted the Swedes who had joined them a free departure. The 
latter went on to Novgorod region where they began preparations for 
the seizure of Novgorod. 

In July 1610 the starving population of Moscow rose up against 
Vasili Shuiski. At that time False Dimitry 11 once more approached 
Moscow from Kaluga. The boyars and nobility seized Vasili Shuiski 
and forced him to take the monastic vow, thus ensuring his seclusion 
from all temporal concerns. 

A boyars’ government was formed in Moscow, consisting of seven 
of the great boyars, mostly of ancient ducal lineageThis government 
was known as the Bemiboyarahchim (the Seven Boyars). Actually, 
however, it was the rule of the Poles that was estahlidied in Muscovy.

===== Seizure of Moscow by the Poles and of Novgorod Region by the Swedes =====
Fearing a popular uprising and the seizure of the capital 
by False Dimitry II ’s Cossacks, the boyars’ government hastened to come to terms with Zolkiewski. It agreed to recognize Wladislaus as the tsar of Muscovy, on the condition that he rule jointly with the 
boyars. After concluding this agreement the boyars’ government 
treacherously admitted the Polish troops into Moscow. A large dep
utation, which included the metropolitan Philaret, was sent to 
Sigismund III, outside the walls of Smolensk, to conclude peace. 
The Poles seized the Moscow envoys and sent them off to Poland. 
The nobles who were members of the deputation sent epistles to Moscow 
in which they described their humiliating position; they called upon 
the Russians not to submit to the king and his son, the prince. "Take 
good counsel among yourselves concerning this," they wrote, "and 
send om epistle to Novgorod and to Vologda and to Nizhni (Nizhni 
Novgorod), that it may be known to all." The Polish king’s ambition 
was to become the tsar of Muscovy himself. 

The Moscow boyars’ government found itself in a most humiliating 
position. The boyars had to render complete obedience to the new 
chief of the Polish detachment. Several of the boyars who attempted 
reoistance were inamediately arrested and placed under the surveillance 
of Polish commissaries. The Polish gentry robbed the tsar’s treasmy 
in the Elremlin of its valuables. They plundered the population of the 
capital and committed outrages. The situation in other cities was no 
better. A large Polish army headed by the king continued to besiege 
Smolensk. The Swedes seized thfe Russian southern coast of the Gulf 
of Finland, and threatened Novgorod. Trade between the towns prac
tically ceased. The craftsmen and petty tradesfolk were impoverished. 
The nobility too were ruined since they had no one to work their land. 
Entire regions were desolated. The Russian state broke up into separate 
parts. But the Russian people, even in this difficult period, did not 
submit to the invaders or lay down their arms. 

==== Struggle of the Russian People against the Polish Invaders ====

===== The First Popular Levy =====
The Poles in Moscow tried their utmost 
to make the population of the capital declare their allegiance to the 
Polish king. The people, however, did not want to submit either to 
the king or to his son, the prince, nor to any other Polish authorities. 
Proclamations were circulated among the population, branding as 
traitors those Moscow boyars who had struck a bargain with the Poles. 
The head of the Russian church, the patriarch Hermogen, also came 
out against the Poles. At the end of the year 1610 he sent out proc
lamations to the cities, invoking the Russian people to rally to the 
capital’s liberation. 

The appeals of the patriarch Hermogen inflamed the popular 
movement against the invaders still more. On learning of these proclamations, the Polec, thiew Hoimogea into a dungeon, but were unable to break his will. 

In January 1611 the Ryazan waywode, Prokopi Lyapunov, began 
to organize a volunteer lorce for the liberation of Moscow. The basis 
of this popular levy was formed by detachments of nobles, chiefly 
from the southern districts. Lyapunov appealed to the Cossacks and 
serfs, promising the Cossacks remunera»tion and the serfs emancipation. 
The Cossacks who had formerly been in the Tushino camp likewise 
responded to this call. Various cities sent out proclamations inviting 
eacli other to join forces for effecting the liberation of Moscow. When 
the Poles learned of the rallying of a Russian popular levy they tried 
to make the people of the capital fortify the city. But far from helping 
the Poles the Russians hurled down the cannon which had already 
been set up on the walls. The Polish szlachta fell upon the populace 
and started a slaughter. The population put up a furious resistance. 
A detachment, commanded by Prince Dimitry Mikhailovich Po
zharski, began to press the Poles. The vanguard of the popular levy 
came up at an opportune moment. The Poles and the boyar traitors 
then set fire to Moscow. The battle continued among the burning 
buildings, but the smoke and flames forced the Russian detachments 
back to the outskirts of the capital. Prince Pozharski was wounded 
during the fighting. Several days later, in the middle of March, the 
main forces of the popular levy arrived upon the scene. They stood 
outside Moscow for some months, but were unable to liberate it. 

On June 30 a covenant was drawn up defining the form of govern
ment and organization of the army. The popular levy, consisting of 
nobles and Cossacks was placed in the charge of three "chiefs": Lya
punov, as representative of the nobles, and Prince Dimitry Trubetskoi 
and the Cossack ataman Ivan Zarut sky — leaders of the Cossack detach
ments which had formerly been in Tushino camp. The nobles were 
mostly concerned with ensuring land and peasants for themselves. 
The covenant provided that serf peasants who had quitted their land
lords during the peasant war were to be returned to their original 
domiciles. Drawn up in the interests of the nobles, the covenant of 
June 30th aggravated factional strife within the popular levy. Colli
sions between the nobles and the Cossacks were a constant occurrence. 
The Cossacks slew Prokopi Lyapunov. After his death the popular 
levy fell to pieces. The detachments of nobles dispersed. Only a part 
of the Cossack troops, under Trubetskoi and Zarutsky, remained 
before Moscow. 

For nearly two years the valiant garrison of Smolensk repulsed 
the furious onslaughts of a large Polish army. Neither the fierce bom
bardment, disease and lack of food, nor the alluring promises made 
by the king could break the resistance of the besieged. To all propos
als of surrender the Smolensk people retorted that they were determined to fight to the death. In the beginning of June 1611 the Poles succeeded in blowing up part of the fortress wall. The last ferocious 
battle was fought out in the streets of the burning city. The 
inhabitants put up a desperate fight. Many of them rushed into the 
flames rather than fall into the hands of the enemy. A powder maga
zine containing about two and a half tons of gunpowder was blown 
up. Many Poles and Russians perished under the debris of falling 
buildings during the explosion. Only a mere handful of the defendeis 
were taken prisoner. At about the same time the Swedes captuied 
Great Novgorod. 

The stubborn defence of Smolensk was of signal value in that 
it kept the main forces of the Polish army tied up under the walls 
of that fortress, and facilitated the struggle of the Russian people 
for the liberation of their native land. 

===== The Popular Levy of Minin and Pozharsk =====
The first pop
ular levy, which consisted chiefly of the nobility and Cossack units, 
broke up by the autumn of 1611. But the struggle of the Russian 
people against the Polish invaders continued with unabated vigour, 
Kuzma Minin of Nizhni Novgorod, elected by the townsfolk as the 
reeve of Nizhni Novgorod, took the lead in organizing a new people’s 
army. He made an ardent appeal to the population to rally in defence 
of their country, and to spare neither life nor property in its liberation. 
The people of Nizhni Novgorod drew up a covenant by which they 
pledged obedience to their chiefs, undertook to provide funds for 
the army’s maintenance and not to spare themselves. On Minings 
proposal. Prince Dimitry Pozharski, famed for his battle against 
the Poles at Moscow, where he had been wounded, was invited to 
take command of the people’s army. 

From Nizhni Novgorod, as at one time from Moscow, proclama
tions were sent to other cities calling upon the people to join the strug
gle for the liberation of their native land, and to send men, arms, 
and money. The whole country, from the Maritime North to Ryazan, 
rose up in arms. The Poles in Moscow were alarmed by the news of 
the mustering of a large popular army. Their boyar satellites, scared 
of the popular levy, tried to persuade the people to submit to the 
Polish Prince Wladislaus, But these appeals of the boyars met with no 
response.

Early in the spring of 1612 the popular levy moved from Nizhni 
Novgorod to Yaroslavl. Its progress was greeted enthusiastically 
by the people, the city folk made generous donations in money, and 
ever new detachments of warriors swelled its ranks from all sides. 
The popular levy stood about four months at Yaroslavl. Here it organ
ized a ze^hsJci (national) government, a "Government of the Entire 
Land." Various government oflSces were set up for purposes of state 
administration, Minin and Pozharski, the leaders of the popular levy, 
devoted considerable time and energy to the organization of the mil
itary forces. The popular levy was made up of many heterogeneous 
units, including nobles from various cities, a miscellaneous urban 
population, Streltsi, Cossacks, and peasants. Besides Kussians the 
levy comprised Tatars, Mari, Chuvashes, and other nationalities. 
While the main forces of the popular levy were stationed at Yaroslavl, 
detachments sent out in various directions had, with the help of the 
population, liberated a large part of the country from the Poles 
and also from the Cossacks who had formerly gone over to the side 
of False Dimitry 11 and now refused to recognize the national 
government. 

The population in various parts of the country continued of their 
own accord to fight the Polish detachments. Unfamiliar as they were 
with the locality, the Poles forced the villagers to act as their guides. 
However, many of these guides, at the sacrifice of their own lives, 
led the Polish detachments into forest jungles or decoyed them into 
the snare of the Russian troops. One of these national heroes was 
Ivan Susanin, a Kostroma peasant whom the Poles took as their guide. 
He led the Polish detachment into the Isupovskoye swamp. The infuriat* 
edszlachta slew Susanin, but they perished in the swamp themselves. 

At the end of August 1612 the main forces of the popular levy 
marched to the walls of Moscow, Ataman Zarut&fcy, who had again 
joined the Poles, fled with some of his Cossacks to the south. The 
remaining Cossacks, encamped before Moscow with Prince Trubetskoi, 
though they did not immediately join the popular levy, put no obstac
les in its way. While the popular levy was marching on Moscow, Hetman 
Chodkiewicz, at the head of a Polish army, was hastening to the aid 
of the Poles with arms and food. In numerical strength his army was 
not inferior to that of Minin and Pozharski. Chodkiewicz fell upon 
the popular levy full tilt, supported by sallies from the Poles seated 
in Moscow. The popular levy found itself hard pressed. All day a 
furious battle raged. The men of the popular levy dismounted from 
their horses and closed in with the enemy. Some of Trubetskoi ’s Cos
sacks joined the volunteers without waiting for his permission, and 
together they threw back the Poles. The latter renewed their attack 
on the following day. They strove to break through to the ferries on 
the Moskva River. Kuzma Minin with a troop of four hundred of Pozliarski’s men, crossed the river, and came down precipitately on the Poles’ flank. The Poles wavered before the shock of this sudden 
impact, then turned and fled to their camp. Their entire baggage 
train (400 carts with supplies) fell into the hands of the victors. The 
remnants of the Polish troops took to their heels. The Polish garrison 
in Moscow was left without reinforcements and food; the Poles began 
to suffer from hunger. On October 26, 1612, after a battle at the Kremlin 
Gates, they surrendered. Moscow was freed. 

=== Autocracy in Russia in the 17th Century ===

==== Reign of Mikhail Romanov ====

===== Election of Mikhail Romanov as Tsar =====
After Moscow was 
liberated the ^*National Government" convened the Zemeki Sohor 
(National Assembly) for the purpose of electing a tsar. 

The assembly consisted chieny of nobles and burghers, the boyars 
and clergy forming a small group. There were also many represent
atives of the Cossacks, chiefly the Cossack atamans. Among the boyars 
were followers of the Polish ^own Prince Wladislaus and the Swedish 
Crown Prince Gustavus. The bulk of the assembly, however, were 
opposed to the interventionists..It was therefore resolved not to elect 
a foreigner to the throne. The most popular of the boyars, well regarded 
among the nobles and the Cossack atamans, were the Komanovs, 
relatives of Tsar Ivan IV and Pyodor. From them the nobles and the 
Cossack atamans hoped to obtain land, peasants, and other favours. 
Philaret, the metropolitan of Rostov, the oldest representative of 
this family, was a prisoner in Poland, and, moreover, being a monk, 
was not eligible as tsar. The Zemski Sohor therefore elected as tsar 
his sixteen-year-old son Mikhail, though he was a mere youth of weak 
character and inferior intellect. Tne elections were held at the begin
ning of 1613. The boyars are said to have made Mikhail give them 
a written pledge that he would act only with their consent. The new 
tsar was too young and miwise to rule independently. The country 
was virtually governed by his mother and relatives. Theie were still 
traitors among the ruling boyars such as Prince Fyodor Mstislavski, 
It was they who dismissed the 'National Government" of Minin and 
Pozharski from power. 

The new government did not immediately succeed in establishing 
a firm footing in the country. Zarutsky and Marina Mniszek, acoompanied fey some of the Cossacks j fled to Astrakhan where the former proclaimed himself Tsar Dimitry, and Marina’s little son the Tsar
evich Ivan Dimitrievioh. The mass of the Cossacks did not support 
Zarutsky, and the residents of Astrakhan even started an uprising 
against him. Zarutsky then went to the Yaik, but there the Cossacks 
seized both him and Marina and handed them over to the Moscow 
authorities. Zarutsky was executed in Moscow. Marina died in prison; 
her young son was hanged. 

The landlords took advantage of the restoration of a central govern
ment to crush the peasant movement completely and re-establish 
their own power over the serf countryside. 

The government made generous awards of land and serfs to the 
atamans and other wealthy Cossacks. In this manner the upper strata 
of the Cossacks were turned into landed proprietois. The poor element 
of the Cossacks was dealt with peremptorily. The tsar’s waywodes 
rounded up and annihilated the Cossack detachments everywhere. 
In 1616 a rather powerful movement broke out among the peasants 
and seifs in the Nizhni Novgorod district. The insurgents killed the 
nobles and burnt the villages. The same year saw an outbreak among 
the Tatars and the Mari in the Kazan district. They came close to 
the cities and tried to join forces with the rebels in the Nizhni Novgo
rod district. The uprising was suppressed. 

The insurrection quelled, the victorious landlords set about tighten
ing the shackles of thralldom. Under pressure from the nobles and 
the monasteries the government issued a number of ukases lengthening 
the period of search for fugitive peasants from five to fifteen years, 
and thus paving the way to the complete abolition of the fixity of 
term that had heretofore existed. The war against the peasantiy re
tarded the struggle against foreign intervention. 

The Swedes who had seized Novgorod continued their military 
operations. The Swedish king, the famous general Gustavus Adolphus, 
was defeated at Pskov in 1615. This presented an opportunity for 
beginning peace negotiations with Sweden through the mediation 
of England and Holland. These countries were incurring losses as 
a result of falling trade with Russia due to hostilities. In the beginning 
■of 1617 peace was concluded at Stolbovo. The Swedes retained the 
entire shoreline of the Gulf of Einland and the Russian cities of Oreshek, 
Ivan-gorod, Yam and others, but evacuated the Novgorod region. 
Once more Russia found herself cut off from the Baltic Sea. 

The war against Poland continued. Wladislaus was not disposed 
to give up the Muscovy throne. He marched on Moscow in 1618, but 
the assault of the Polish troops was repulsed. On his retreat from 
Moscow Wladislaus approached the Troitsk-Sergiyev Monastery and 
demanded its surrender. The monastery walls opened cannon fire 
OH the Polish army and forced it to withdraw. 

At the end of 1618 Moscow and Polish plenipotentiaries con* 
eluded an armistice for 14^/2 years in the village of Deulino (near 
the Troitsk-Sergiyev Monastery)* Smolensk and its adjoining ter
ritory, and Seversk (Chernigov) Land were temporarily ceded to 
Poland.

===== Restoration of the State =====
The long war and intervention 
had reduced the country to a state of ruin. In the early years of Mi
khairs reign the Zemshi Sohor^ which functioned uninterruptedly, 
rendered the government considerable assistance in restoring the 
state administration . All the current needs of the state were discussed 
at these assemblies, new taxes were imposed, etc. Widespread min 
and desolation made it difficult to collect taxes from the population. 
The Zemshi Sobor sent its representatives to the provinces to help 
the royal tax collectors. After the conclusion of the armistice with 
Poland the tsar’s father, Philaret Romanov, returned from his Polish 
captivity. On his arrival in Moscow he was immediately made the 
patriarch and became the virtual ruler of the state (1619-1633). All 
ukases were issued in the name of the tsar and his father. Philaret 
even accepted the title of Veliki Ooaudar — the Great Lord. He virtually 
combined in his person the ecclesiastic and secular power —the power 
of the patriaich and of the tsar. This greatly strengthened the central 
government.

==== Foreign Policy after the Peasant War ====

===== War with Poland for Smolensk =====
Russia could not reconcile her
self with the .loss of Smolensk, a first-class fortress that protected 
the crossing over the Dnieper and was of great commercial significance. 
The Muscovy government, therefore, throughout the period of the 
Deulino armistice, made active preparations for a new war. 

Events of the early 17th century strikingly revealed the technical 
backwardness of the Russian state. The government of Tsar Mikhail 
made urgent effoits to build up the military strength and improve 
the organization of the Russian army. Despite all difficulties a large 
quantity of arms was purchased abroad. New regiments were formed 
of foreign mercenaries, and peasant recruits from the monastery and 
landlord demesnes and volunteers were used to form Russian regiments 
of "foreign formation," trained according to European methods under 
the command of foreign officers. 

In 1632 the army of Muscovy under the boyar Shein began its 
siege of Smolensk. Shein had already won glory in 1610-1611 during 
the heroic defence of Smolensk. At this time Sigismund'III of Poland 
died. A new king had not been elected and the country was in the 
throes of intestine strife. Smolensk was strongly fortified and the siege became a protracted one. Discipline among the foreign soldiers in Muscovy’s seivice was very lax. They constantly bickered among 
themselves and frequently went over to the enemy. 

The Poles succeeded in persuading the Crimean Tatars by gifts 
and bribes to commence hostilities against Muscovy. The Tatars 
raided the southern border regions of Russia. On receiving news of 
the Tatar raid, the nobles of the southern districts abandoned the 
army and hastened to defend their estates. 

In 1633 the patriarch Philaret died. The Moscow boyars did not 
want war and did not supply Shein with reinforcements. Demoral
ization set in in the Russian army. Shein himself openly voiced his 
doubts as to the possibility of victory and, very likely, missed the 
opportunity of capturing the fortress. The son of Sigismund m, Wla
dislaus rV, who was elected king of Poland, hastened with an army 
to the aid of the besieged Polish garrison. The Russians were trapped 
between Wladislaus’ troops and the Smolensk fortifications. After 
several attempts to break through, the Russians were forced to sur
render on onerous terms— ^11 their cannon were handed over to the 
enemy. 

The Moscow boyars, who did not like Shein for his haughtiness, 
made this failure an excuse for charging him with treachery. Shein 
was executed, although it was the boyars, and not he, who were the 
traitors. Purther progress of the Poles was stemmed at the fortress 
of Belaya. On, being demanded to surrender, the small garrison holding 
the fortress declared that it would defend itself to the last man. The 
threat of war with Turkey and the resistance encountered at Belaya 
compelled KingWladislaus to seek a speedy peace, which was concluded 
at the frontier river of Polyanovka in 1634. Poland kept Smolensk 
and the other cities seized during the intervention, but agreed to recognize Mikhail as the Russian tsar. Wladislaus renounced his claim to the tsar’s throne for all time. 

===== Relations with Crimea and Turkey =====
One of the reasons for 
the failure of the Russian troops at Smolensk was the attacks of the 
Crimean Tatars on the southern districts. After the termination of 
the war the Moscow government energetically began to repair and 
build a line of fortifications to protect the southern frontier against 
the Tatar raids. These fortifications ensured Muscovy’s possession of 
the fertile steppe, which Russian landowners had begun to lay hands on. 

In 1637 the Don Cossacks attacked the Fortress of Azov, held by the 
Turks, which barred the exit from the Don to the Azov Sea. After a 
siege lasting two months the Cossacks took Azov by storm. 

In 1641 the Turkish sultan sent a large army with a powerful artil
lery to Azov. The small Cossack detachment located in Azov coura
geously repulsed twenty-four assaults and forced the Turks to raise 
the siege. In expectation of new attacks being undertaken by the 
Turks, the Cossacks appealed to Moscow for help. 

The government of Tsar Mikhail hesitated to begin war with 
Turkey for the possession of Azov without first obtaining the support 
of the Zemald 8dbor. When the National Assembly convened in 1642 
the military and merchants, though in favour of having Azov brought 
under the tsar’s power, bitterly complained about the burden of taxa
tion, the bribery rampant among the government cleiks, the tyranny 
of the waywodes and other irregularities in the state administration. 
Seeing that it could not safely rely on the active support of the ruling 
classes, the government ordered the Cossacks to abandon Azov. 

==== Feudal Serf Economy ====

===== The Condition of the Peasants =====
In the 17th century, as in the 
preceding centuries of feudalism, the land of every feudal demesne 
was divided into the lord’s land and the peasants ’. The peasants tilled 
not only their own plots with their own implements but also ih^ land 
of their lords, who alone enjoyed its harvest. As Lenin pointed out, 
in order that this system of economy, which was called barsJichina 
economy, might exist , the following conditions were necessaiy: "Firstly , 
the predominance of natural self-sufficing economy. The serf owner’s 
estate had to represent a self-contained, isolated whole, having very 
weak contacts with the outside world."* Se'feondly, such an economy 
demands that the peasant be consigned to a piece of land and attached 
to it so that he cannot leave the landlord. The third condition is the 
personal dependence of the peasant on the landlord: "If the landlord did not exercise direct power over the person of the peasant, he could 
not compel him, as possessor of 
land and a tiller on his own account , 
to work for him."* The fouith 
condition which was also a result 
of barskchina economy is 'Hhe 
extiemely low and loutine state of 
technique, for the land was tilled 
by small peasants who were crushed 
by poverty and degraded by per
sonal dependence and ignoiance."** 
In the 17th century the lural 
population of Russia was divided 
up into several categoiies: pri
vately-owned peasants living on the 
lands of the clergy, boyars and 
landloids, peasants adsciibed to the 
tsar ’s palace who supplied products 
for his needs, called dvoitsoviye 
(palace peasants); and finally all 
the other peasants who lived on 
crown lands, called chomiye or 
chernososhniye (the "black" people 
or the rabble). All the peasants vere heavily taxed by the tsar. 

In the 17th century the number of privately-owned peasants 
continued to grow. The government of the first tsars of the Romanov 
dynasty granted laige estates together with chernososhniye and dvor* 
peasants, to the palatine aristocracy and nobles. Large demesnes 
together with the peasants and craftsmen living on them were seized 
by the relatives of the tsai . By the end of the 17th century the dijSFerence 
between the estates held in fee and the patrimonies practically van
ished; most of the estates became of hereditary tenure, like the pat
rimonies. 

The condition of the privately-owned peasants was particularly 
onerous. The landlords kept on increasing the manorial tillage which 
the peasants were obliged to work. The latter paid the landowner 
quitrent in kind, consisting of various products of agriculture and 
the domestic crafts. The products obtained fiom the peasants went 
to feed the family of the landlord and his servants. The peasants had 
to pay their landlord, in addition to the products of their land, a money tax generally varying from fifty kopeks to one ruble 
for every peasant housebold. 

With, the onset of autumn 
and the winding up of farm 
woik, many peasants usually 
engaged in various crafts: 
they wove linen cloth, fulled 
wool, curried hides, made 
mittens and wooden utensils, 
forged agricultuial imple
ments, etc. Part of these 
articles remained in the peas
ant household or was given 
to the landlord in payment of 
quitrent. The rest was sold 
on the market. In order to 
raise money to pay the crown 
taxes and their quitrent to 
the landlords, the peasants 
became increasingly depen
dent upon the maiket. 

The development of peas
ant trade led to social di
vision among the peasantry. Peasant factors appeared in the villages. 
Some of them abandoned husbandry and became merchants. 

The landlords in the 17th century were no longer content with 
the products which they received from their peasants, serfs and crafts
men, The rich boyars and the nobles of the capital made themselves 
clothes of Italian velvet or English woolens, woie sable hats, were 
fond of expensive ornaments, drank imported wines and introduced 
foreign articles into their households. All these things could be ob
tained only for money received from the peasants or from the sale 
of the products of the peasant economy. 

Seif economy in the 17th century began to adapt itself to the 
developing market. 

An example of a large serf economy in the middle of the 17th 
century was that of the boyar Boris Ivanovich Morozov. Morozov had 
about thiee hundred villages with a population of over 40,000 serfs 
on his extensive demesnes, which yielded him a revenue, in money 
alone, of 10,000 rubles annually (equivalent to 170,000 rubles at 
early 20th century parity). His numerous granaries contained hundreds 
of thousands of poods* of corn. During the war with Poland Morozov took advantage of pievailing higli prices on corn to amass a huge foiijune. His serfs had to supply huge quantities of various 
products for the upkeep of the 700 servants on his estate. Morozov 
established ironworks and potash factories and compelled his peas
ants to do the most difficult woik. The potash was sold to foreign 
merchants.

===== Manufactories =====
Side by side with the growth of handicraft pro
duction, the first manufactories made their appearance in Hussia in 
the 17th century. In manufactories a number of people worked to
gether, depending upon the size of the enterprise. They performed 
different parts of a common job. Work in the manufactory was per
formed by hand w>th the aid of simple instiuments (the term "manu
factory" comes from the Latin words manus meaning hand^ and factura 
meaning a 7haJcing). Compared with the labour of the artisan, the 
manufactory permitted greater productivity of labour. In 1632 a 
Dutch merchant, Andrew Vinnius, was granted a concession on the 
iron ore near Tula; there he built the first iron manufactory, thus 
laying the foundation for the futuie Tula Ironworks. A few years 
later a Swede by the name of Koet founded a glass factory near Moscow. 
During the second half of the 17th century the crown, merchants and 
landowners organized ironwoiks, copper foundries, glass woiks, paper 
mills and tanneries. Tor the most part, the woikers in these manu
factories were di awn at that time from among the seifs or other depen
dent peopleThe manufactories also employed fiee hired "Voikpeople" 
from the ranks of the city poor.

===== The Crafts and Trade =====
In th© 17th century regular trade inter
course was established between the village and town marts. In some 
places the city and village population had begun to specialize in the 
manufacture of one or another article. The black-eaith districts sup
plied the central regions of the country with their corn. Yaroslavl was 
renowned for its mirrors, which were shipped even to Siberia, Vologda 
produced various ironware. Kaluga was famous for its fine work in 
wood, and so on. In the southern cities one could meet merchants 
from the Maritime North; in the northern cities various tradesmen 
collected who had bought goods for shipment to Aichangel, Siberia 
and other places. Thus regions and cities ceased to be economically 
isolated as they had been before. 

In the 17th century, as Lenin points out, small marts merged into 
a single ^*all-Russian market.’^* With the development of trade he^ 
tween regions, there was bi ought about a virtual amalgamation of all 
the territories that had formeily been part of separate principalities. 
The old local peculiarities vanished everywhere. 
Through her commerce Russia in the 17th century established still closer ties with many foreign powers. Archangel became the chief 
port of trade with Western Europe. Every summer large numbers 
of English, Dutch and German ships arrived at the port of Aiohangel, 
bringing miscellaneous cargoes of woolens, silk fabrics, expensive 
utensils, arms, metals, etc. Eussian merchants navigated the Northern 
Dvina with shiploads of Siberian furs, hides, hemp, hax, pitch, potash, 
pork, and the wares of peasants and city craftsmen. Trade with the 
East was carried on chiefly via Astrakhan, to which Bokhara and 
Persian merchants brought their Eastern wares. 

===== Towns =====
The development of the crafts and trade stimulated the 
growth of towns. In the 16th.l7th centuries the Eussian town consisted 
of several sections. The central part of the town, the Kremlin (or 
citadel), was usually surrounded by wooden walls; some big towns had 
stonewalls aboutthem, with battlements and towers. The administra
tive offices were housed withinthe fortress where the supplies of food and 
gunpowder were also kept, as well as special isha^ (huts) for sheltering 
the population in times of a siege. Adjoining the citadel were settle
ments of craftsmen and petty tradespeople. Beyond these settlements, 
amid the fields and meadows, were scattered villages belonging to the 
monasteries and boyars. 

The growth of domestic and foreign trade promoted the develop
ment of a merchant class. The upper stratum of merchants in the capi
tal who enjoyed great privileges were called '"guests." This 
title was conferred by special royal charter. The Eussian merchants had 
to compete with foreign merchants (the English, Dutch, Germans, 
and others) who tried to gain control over the Eussian market. The Russian merchants succeeded in getting the government to prohibit duty-free trade by foreigners in Russia.

The townsfolk were divided into several categories, according to their 
financial status. The wealthy merchants formed the highest category . 
Craftsmen and petty tradesmen as well as people who made their living 
by casual employment constituted the lower strata. Taxes were imposed 
on the townsfolk in money and in services. This assessment did not 
apply to people living on the lands of the church, boyars and nobles. 
The wealthy city taxpayers, the "best people" as they were called, held 
elective offices and tried to reduce their assessment. The condition 
of the lower estates in the towns, on whose shoulders rested the 
main burden of state taxation and who were virtually in thrall to the 
rich merchants, was a pitiful one. 

==== Uprisings in the Cities in the Middle of the 17th Century ====

===== Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich =====
After the death of Tsar Mikhail, his 
son, the sixteen-year-old Alexei Mikhailovich (1645-1676), ascended 
the throne of Muscovy. The young tsar was very fond of falconry and 
other sports. His guardian, the boyar Boris Ivanovich Morozov, assumed 
the administration of the state. He appointed his own people to 
the most important posts. To strengthen his influence, he procured 
the marriage of the tsar with the daughter of Miloslavski, a boyar of 
humble origin, himself marrying another of his daughters. 

At the time of Tsar Mikhail’s death the situation in the country was 
very grave. The unsuccessful war with Poland had completely ruined 
the country, which had not yet recovered from the effects of interven
tion. The first thing Morozov did was to improve the country’s finan
cial position. Forthesake of economy he reduced the salaries of the mili
tary, and imposed a new and very high tax on salt. Thousands of poods 
of fish rotted because of the high price of salt, and the government 
was obliged to hastily repeal the salt tax. Other taxes ^ were intro
duced, the burden of which fell on the poor part of the population, 
especially on the city craftsmen, unskilled labourers and petty 
tradespeople. 

The rich merchants (guests) to whom the farming of taxes was 
entrusted, enriched themselves at the expense of the poor. The trades
people from among the peasants, being the seifs of the boyars and the 
church, were exempt from taxation, though many of them carried on 
very big transactions. There were large settlements near the towns be
longing to the boyars and monasteries the entire population of which 
engaged in trade and the crafts, and competed effectively with the 
townsfolk, without, however, having to pay taxes. 

===== Insurrections in the Cities =====
The plight ol the lower strata of the 
urban population led to a number of uprisings and disturbances during 
the first years of Alexei Mikhailovich’s reign. On June 1, 1648, when the 
tsar returned to Moscow from a religious pilgrimage, the populace who 
went out to meet him lodged complaints against the extortions of Moro
zov’s people. The petitioners were dispersed with whips. The next day 
a crowd broke into the Kremlin and made its way to the palace, demand
ing that Leonti Pieshcheyev, who was in charge of the police in the capi
tal, be turned over to them. Pieshcheyev had a reputation among the 
people of being a savage oppressor and a brute. The boyars who came out 
of the palace to pacify the crowd were forced to Cee. The people attacked 
the homes of the boyars and officials. An important functionary was 
killed. The insurrection assumed threatening dimensions. Fires broke out 
over a large section of the city. The terrified tsar handed over to the 
throng the most hated of the grandees— Pieshcheyev andTrabhaniotov. 
These were killed. Then the rebels demanded the head of Morozov him
self . The tsar sent his boyars to the Red Square,’*' who, in the name of the 
tsar, swore that Morozov would be dismissed from the government. 
During the night he was taken out of Moscow and sent to a distant 
monastery. 

The uprising became all the more menacing when the nobles, 
who had arrived in the city to take up service, also took advantage of 
the situation. The townsfolk and nobles submitted a petition to the 
tsar asking him to convene the Zemski Sohor in order to draw up a new 
code of laws {Olozheniye), 

Simultaneously with the uprising in Moscow, disturbances broke 
out in a number of other cities: Kursk, Solvychegodsk, Ustyug, and 
others. In the autumn of 1648 the government hurriedly convened the 
Zemski Sohor, The assembly was well attended. The great majority con
sisted of the provincial nobility and townsfolk. All their demands were 
met. In January 1649 a new Code of Laws was confirmed, fixing the 
duties and rights of the various social estates, the conditions of the 
nobles’ service and the assessment of the townsfolk. To conciliate the 
nobles on the much vexed question of repealing the " fixed period" 
that is, the term during which fugitive peasants could be sought, this 
issue was finally settled in the landlords’ favour, thus making serf
dom a statutory established fact. According to the new legal code, 
fugitive peasants, in the event of their being caught, were reinstated 
together with their families and property to their former owners, 
irrespective of the time that had elapsed. Thus the feudal depen
dence of the peasants was legally established as the law of serf
dom. The townsfolk secured a decision by which all boyar andchurdi settlements were annexed to the towns, and their population placed on an equal footing with those of the towns in regard to taxation and ser
vices. The townspeople themselves were completely attached to the set
tlements in which they lived. At the same time the code consolidated the 
tsar^s power by establishing a death penalty for crimes against the 
tsar’s person and harsh punishments for an insult to the tsar. 

Tae movement which had spread throughout the cities of Russia 
during the summer of 1648 did not subside immediately. In 1650 a 
very strong outbreak occurred in Novgorod and Pskov, in response, as 
it were, to the Code of Laws of 1649, 

The uprising in Pskov was especially serious. The Pskov people 
deposed the tsar’s waywode and set up a self-government. They sent a 
petition to Moscow in which, among other things, they demanded that 
their own representatives be permitted to sit in the waywode ’s court 
of justice. In reply they received from Moscow a letter of reprimand. 
"Never has it happened that muzhiks have sat in court together with 
boyars and waywodes, nor will it ever be." At the same time troops 
were dispatched against Pskov. 

The people of Pskov defended themselves bravely for almost three 
months, and inflicted heavy losses upon the tsar’s troops. In the 
Pskov district the insurgent peasants assaulted the landlords .The upris
ing assumed such serious proportions that the tsar again convened the 
Zemshi Sohor in Moscow. The assembly sent a delegation to Pskov with 
the promise of an amnesty. There was no complete unity in Pskov. The 
rich people persuaded the populace to cease their resistance and give 
their allegiance to the tsar. In expectation of the amnesty the Pskov 
people obeyed, but they were cruelly deceived. When the disturbance 
was over, executions and exiles began. The rich Pskov people themselves 
helped the tsarist administration and betrayed the ringleaders. 

The future patriarch Nikon especially distinguished himself in 
quelling the disturbances of 1650.

==== Organs of Government of the Russian State ====

===== The Power of the Tsar =====
The state structure of Russia as a system of 
feudal serfdom took final form in the 17th centuryimder the Romanovs. 
Lenin describes this feudal state in the following way: ^Tn order to 
maintain his domination, in order to retain his power, the landlord had 
to have an apparatus which would unite, under his rule, a tremendous 
number of people and would subordinate them to certain laws and 
regulations— and all these laws essentially boiled down to one —the retention of power by the landlord over the serf."* At the bead of the Eussian state was an autociaiic tsar who was himself the first anc 
foremost landlord of the realm. The nobles had need of a strong tsar 
who could protect their class interests. The will of the tsar was law foi 
the entire land. All military servitors, even the aristocratic boyars 
called themselves the servants of the tsar; and assessed people— the 
townsfolk and peasants —could not even call themselves* that. They were 
the tsar’s 'Tittle orphans." When addressing the tsar, everyone had tc 
refer to himself in the diminutive; Petrushka^ Ivashha (Peteikin, John
ny). They did obeisance to the tsar as to a deity, touching the groun<3 
with their foreheads. 

The tsar’s power was also sustained by the splendour wdth whid 
he surrounded himself. On ceremonious occasions, when receiving for
eign ambassadors or attending church, the tsar appealed in sumptuous 
"full-dress," in a brocaded kaftan embroidered in pearls, the roya] 
shoulder-mantle richly ornamented with images of the saints, the 
Monomakh cap, and a sceptre in his hands.

===== The Boyar Duma =====
To decide important matters the tsar had a 
council consisting of his court boyars, which was called the "boyar 
duma." The tsar, however, was not obliged to consult the boyar duma. 
More often than not he would confer with several of his trusted servants 
or make a decision without consulting anyone. The boyar duma was an 
aristocratic institution, and only people of "noble pedigree" were ap
pointed to it. However, in the 17th century people of relatively obscure 
origin became members of the boyar duma more and more frequently.

===== Government Offices =====
Current administration was handled by special 
institutions, called •prihazi, at the head of which stood a boyar, assisted 
by one or two cleiks called dyahi. The ofS.ce routine was carried on by 
under-cleiks called podyacMye. The cleiks and under-cleiks were people 
of humble origin, who lived on the royal salary, on fees from petition
ers, and often on bribes (gifts) which were banned by law. They were 
the obedient tools of the royal power and the esecutives of centialized 
government. There were over forty of these offices. The work was divid
ed among them without organization or system. Military affairs 
were handled by several offices at once. The Razryadni Prihaz (Mili
tary Office) discharged the functions of the Chief Staff; the Streletehi 
Office dealt with the affairs of the Streltsi troops; the Foreign Office 
took care of foreigners in the service of Muscovy; the Beiter Office was 
in charge of reiter regiments (ihe cavalry, trained on foieign lines and 
armed with sabres and muskets); the Gunnery Office had charge of the 
manufacture and storage of arms. The distribution of estates to the 
nobles was taken care of in the Estate Office. There were offices which 
administered separate and, at times very extensive, regions, such as, the Sibeiia Office, the Malorossia (Little Kubsia or Ukraine) Office. There was no definite system in handling the affairs of the various 
•prikazi^ a fact which greatly hampered the woik of administration. 
Even the best organized office, the Posohhi Prikaz, which dealt with 
foreign affairs, not only had charge of diplomatic matters but also 
collected taxes from the towns under its jurisdiction. 

Every government office dispensed justice and imposed penalties. 
Legal procedure in those days was a cruel affair. The defendants were 
subjected to painful toitures. For minor offenses the guilty person was 
stretched out on the ground and beaten with a rod. For more serious 
offenses he was '"unmercifully" scourged with a whip on his bare backs. 
The cutting out of tongues, hacking off of hands, and death sentences 
were common practices. Offenders against religion were burned alive. 

By means such as these was the power of the tsar and the feudal lords 
maintained. Such cruel punishments were characteristic of medieval 
justice in the 16th and 17th centuries everywhere, including the countries 
of Western Europe.

===== Local Administration =====
Waywodes from among the boyars and nobles 
were sent to govern the cities. The waywode was in command of the city 
garrison, he administered justice, and collected taxes from the resi
dents of the city and the adjacent district. The elected staroati (reeves) 
became the subordinate agents ofthewaywodes. The gubernia (regional) 
reeves still existed, but only as assistants of the waywodes. In this way 
all branches of the administration were concentrated in the hands of 
the waywodes, a circumstance which provided wide opportunities for 
abuse. The waywodes regarded their posts merely as a means of private 
upkeep.

===== The Army =====
The old cavalry of the nobilitygradually lost its former 
military significance. In peacetime the nobles were busy with their es
tates.Only at rare intervals did they pass under review for military pre
paredness. In case of war they had to appear for service "mounted, 
manned and armed." They were variously armed, sometimes with fire
arms and sometimes with bows and arrows . Discipline among the nobles ’ 
levy was lax. Many of them evaded service on various pretexts. For 
absence during inspection the offenders were beaten with rods and some
times deprived of their estates. In view of the weakness of the nobles’ 
levy a body of Streltsi was organized in the 16th century. The Streltsi 
received pay in money, were equipped with firearms (arquebuses) , and 
went to war in proper "battle array." But even the Stieltsi were not 
really regular troops. They lived in Moscow and other laige cities in 
special settlements, and in peacetime engaged in the crafts and petty 
trading. In their mode of life the Streltsi hardly differed from the 
petty townsfolk, andthey frequently took part in the outbreaks among 
the city populace.

The government of Muscovy, making preparations for war against 
Poland, enlisted the services of several mercenary regiments. The siege 
of Smolensk in 1632, however, revealed the inefficacj^ and unreliability 
of these ill-disciplined mercenaries, who sold their sword to the highest 
bidder. Therefore, during Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich’s reign another 
method was adopted, one that had been tried and tested in his father’s 
reign. Eegiments were formed of Russian recruits and volunteers, 
with foreign -instructors invited to train them according to "foreign" 
ways. Thus "regiments of foreign formation" were organized consisting 
of horse and foot units, only the officers of which were foreigners. 

In the years immediately following the death of Aloxei Mikhailo
vich there were 63 regiments in the Russian army, trained according 
to European methods and comprising sixty per cent of all the troops, 
not counting the Cossacks. In this way the reorganization of the army 
was begun in the 17th century, and its efficiency improved. An attempt 
was also made under Alexei Mikhailovich to create a fleet. Foreign 
masters built the ship "Oryol" (Eagle), but it was destroyed during 
Razin’s uprising. 

==== Nikon's Church Reform and the Schism ====

===== Church Reform =====
The Russian autocracy needed a strong church 
which would still further enhance the power of the tsar and the domi
nation of the nobles. For this purpose it was necessary to subordinate 
all church organizations more strictly to the highest church power and 
to eradicate certain local peculiarities in the church service and ritual. 

Nikon, a man who exercised great influence over the tsar, became the 
patriarch during the reign of Alexei Mikliailovich, Nikon disposed of 
the vast possessions of the patriarch and the monasteries as though they 
were his own estates. His wealth was tremendous. Nikon treated the 
clergy under him with great severity. The priests called him "a wild 
beast." 

Upon Nikon’s orders, a general revision was made of the church 
service-books and rituals with the object of unifying them. The Greek 
church served as the model for this. The revision of the church service
books and rituals was conducted under the guidance of Greeks and learn
ed Kiev monks. Nikon gave orders that people make the sign of the 
cross not with two fingers, as formerly, but with three, as the Greeks did, 
that icons be painted like the Greek models, and so on. Nor did ho confine 
himself merely to changing certain rituals. He propounded the doctrine 
that the spiritual is higher than the temporal power, the former corres
ponding to the sun and the latter to the moon in the firmament, which 
receives its light from the sun. Nikon assumed the official title of "Fe/iK Gosudar ^ — ^the "Great Lord," interfered in the aiFairs of the realm, and even issued orders affecting military operations. 

The excessive enhancement of Nikon’s power evoked profound dis
content among the court aristocracy and the nobles. While lending his 
support to Nikon’s measures for strengthening the church, the tsar 
was loath to have the royal power eclipsed. Conflicts arose between 
the tsar and Nikon, ^ivhich soon ended in a complete rupture. Think
ing he would frighten the tsar and the boyars, Nikon unexpectedly 
discarded the patriarchal vestments and shut himself up in the Vos
kresensky ]\Ionaster 5 r (New Jerusalem). Nikon expected the tsar to 
call him back* but his hopes were doomed to disappointment. In 
1C66 the tsar convened the church assembly, at which two Greek patri
archs a,ssi&ted. The assembly blamed Nikon for attempting to subordi
nate the royal power to himself, 3 ^et confirmed all his chuich reforms. 
Nikon was exiled to one of the northern monasteries as an ordinary 
monk. 

Thus, Nikon’s attempt to raise the church power above the mun
dane ended in failure. In the struggle between the patriarch and the tsar 
all the advantages were on the side of the latter. The tsar was supported 
by the landowning nobles, who regarded the existence of an independent 
church possessing such vast demesnes with disfavour.

===== The Beginning of the Schism in the Orthodox Chttreh =====
Nikon’s 
reforms resulted in a great schism in the Russian church. His opponents 
refused to recognize the innovations introduced by Nikon and demanded 
that the old ritual be retained. The schismatics were called Baskolniki 
(from the Russian word raskoh meaning schism) or Old Believers. 

The higher clergy and the monasteries, wkich possessed vast demesnes 
and a large population of serfs, ruthlessly exploited their peasants, 
amassed great wealth and deceived the people means of "miracle
working" icons, sacred relics, etc. With rare exceptions, the monasteries 
and higher clergy were in favour of Nikon’s reforms, which enhanced the 
power of the ecclesiastical feudal lords still more. 

The lower clergy were considerably worse off, and were themselves 
the victims of the tyranny of the church prelates. The first opponents 
to Nikon’s reforms appeared among the lower clergy. One of them was 
the protopapas Awakum of Moscow. For active opposition to Nikon and 
his church reform Awakum was exiled to Eastern Siberia where for 
nearly ten years he was cruelly persecuted and maltreated by the 
tsar’s wa 3 rwodes. Upon his return to Moscow Awakum renewed his war 
against the church reforms. This time he was banished to the north, 
to Pustozersk, as a prisoner in an undergroxmd dungeon. In 1681 Avva
kum W'^as burnt at the stake. His advocacy of ancient ritual and observ
ances was reactionary in character. But Awakum also looked upon 
his opposition to innovation as a struggle against the tyranny and abuse 
of the strong and of the ecumenical authorities. 
The defenders of the "Old Belief" who came from among the petty urban population— the craftsmen, traders and army people —were chietly 
opposed to the strong power of the dominant chinch and extortions by 
a greedy clergy. Among the peasants the struggle against a dominant 
church was combined with the struggle against feudal serfage. The peas
ants and petty townspeople sought refuge from feudal oppression in the 
northern forests, and southern steppes and on the Don, where they 
formed sectarian communities. They believed, in this mannerj to be 
able to rid themselves of the oppiession of serfdom. 

Nikon’s church reforms were a Iso opposed by a small conservative 
group of the court nobility and some of the higher clergy, who feared 
that these innovations would shcike the position of the church. 
=== The Ukraine and Byelorussia in the 17th Century ===

==== The Ukraine and Byelorussia under Polish Dominion ====

===== Seizure of Ukrainian and Byelorussian Lands by the Polish Gentry =====
After the conclusion of the Lublin Union between Lithuania 
and Poland in 1569, a large part of Ukrainian territory (the lands 
of Volhynia, Kiev, and Chernigov) passed to Poland. The big Polish 
landed gentry energetically set about helping themselves to Ukrainian 
and Byelorussian lands. At first they seized the lands of Western 
Ukraine, but at the end of the 16th century, they crossed to the left 
bank of the Dnieper. Large holdings of Polish magnates, the Zol
kiewskis, Potockis^ and others, were formed on Ukrainian territory. 

The rapid development of agriculture among the Polish landlords 
followed increased exports of corn fiom Poland and Lithuania to 
Western Europe. Corn from the estates was shipped by water to the 
ports of the Baltic Sea, the most important of which was Danzig. 
The condition of the peasants in Poland at that time was worse than 
in any other European country. The Polish landlords destroyed the 
peasant communities, which had large sections ol land at their disposal. 
The Polish gentry seized the best community lands, settled the peas
ants on small plots and imposed heavy taxes and duties upon them. 
They introduced Polish methods and customs on their Ukrainian and 
Byelorussian estates. 

The Polish landlord enjoyed unlimited power over the population 
on his estates. He could with impunity appropriate the peasant’s Ukrainian peasants. Ficm a drawbig of the IHth century. According to Rigelman property, inflict whatever punishment he saw fit, and even take his 
life. The peasants dared not complain to anyone about their perse
cution or wrongs. The landloids contemptuously called the peasants 
slaves and cattle. 

The Poles suppressed the Ukrainian and Byelorussian national 
culture. The Polish gentry made use of the Catholic church to strengthen 
their own position in the Ukraine and in Byelorussia. The spread of 
Catholicism met with strong resistance from both the peasants and 
the city population, and some of the Ukrainian and Byelorussian 
landlords. Thereupon, on the proposal of the Jesuits, a plan was 
drawn up for the union of the Catholic and Oithodoschuiches.Accoid
ing to this union, most of the church rituals of the Oithodox believers 
were to remain unchanged, but the Orthodox chuich was to be brought 
under the Papal authority. A chuich assembly was convened in the 
city of Brest in 1596 to settle the question of effecting this union. 
The majority of the assembly were opposed to a union and insisted 
on the complete independence of the Orthodox church. Their will, 
however, was overruled by the minority who, despite the opposition, 
proclaimed the union, which was confirmed by a special edict of the Polish king. The object of the union was to help subordinate the Ukrainian and Byelorussian lands to Poland, and signified the further 
intensification of Polish-Papal aggression against Russia. 

The urban population also suifered from Polish oppression. In the 
15th and 16th centuries many Uk ainian and Byelorussian cities had 
been granted self-government. With the growth of Polish land tenure 
in the Ukiaine and Byelorussia, the cities became dependent upon 
Pol'sh authority and the Polish landlords. According to Polish law, 
all landlords had the right to export the products of their estates and 
to buy whatever goods they needed duty-free. This privilege dealt a 
serious blow to city trade. The Polish authorities set aside the cities’ 
rights to self-government; the Polish landlords seized the city lands 
and hampered the crafts and trade. 

The fJki ainian and Byelorussian population in the cities united 
in 'T)rotheihoods," organized under the churches, which fought for 
the preservation of their national culture and waged war against the 
Catholic church. The brotherhoods opened their own schools and 
printing shops, published books, 

and rendered assistance to their . 


needy members. ?5ome of the 
Ukrainian and Byelorussian feu
dal lords copied the Polish gent
ry and nobles , adopted the Polish 
language and Polish customs and 
usages ; but the mass of the people 
remained true to their native 
language and country, and the 
Poles were unable to destroy the 
national culture of the Ukraine 
and Byelorussia. 

The Uki ainian and Byelorus
sian peasants, to escape the op
pression of the Polish landlords, 
Went south, to the still unsettled 
steppes of the Lower Dnieper. 
At the same time Russian peas
ants, to escape the oppression 
of Russian landlords, migrated 
to the Don. A fortified camp 
of Cossacks and runaway peas
ants from the Ukraine was organ
ized on the Island of Khortitsa, 



near the Dniepor falls. These B>eJonissian peasant. F/om a 
people came to be called the dra^ving of the l^th rfiyifurn Zwparozhyt {backfalls) Cossacks. Abatises of hewn trees were erected as protection against attacks, whence these fortified 
Cossack camps came to be called from the Enssian word for 

abatis. The chief pursuits of the Cossacks were fishing, hunting, and 
various crafts. The Cossacks often waylaid the Tatars returning home 
to the Crimea after their raids and recaptured their captives and booty. 

As^ a reprisal against Tuikish and Tatar inroads on Ukrainian lands 
the Cossacks carried out raids on the Crimea and Turkish towns situated 
on the Black Sea coast. Zaporozhye practically had no permanent 
population. The Cossacks gathered at the Bmh early in the spring 
when the high tide had fallen. At such times the island became a 
noisy, populous camp. The Cossacks elected an ataman and other 
military captains. Hundreds of people were busy building the long 
Cossack row-boats of willow and linden, called "gulls, repairing 
their weapons and putting in a stock of provisions. When all prep
arations had been completed, large numbers of Cossack boats would 
move swiftly down the Dnieper out into the Black Sea. Usually the 
Cossacks made for Tuikish shores, sometimes reaching the very capital 
of the sultan— Constantinople, The Cossacks crossed the sea so quickly 
that the Turkish sentry posts rarely had a chance to warn the sultan 
of the imminent danger. The strength of the Cossacks lay in the daring 
and unexpectedness of their attack. In the winter the Za'gorozhskaya 
Bedh was deserted. The Cossacks left for Ukrainian and Polish cities ' 
where they sold the booty they had obtained on their raids and their 
own products. Only guards remained on Kkortitsa Island. Cannon, 
firearms, boats, etc., were carefully hidden away until.the following 
spring. 

At the end of the 16 th century the number of Zaporozhye Cossacks 
increased considerably. Under King Stephen Bathory part of the 
Cossacks were entered in special lists (registers) and were called "reg
isteied CossacL." The Polish government endeavoured to use them 
to defend the frontier Polish lands and for purposes of war. The "reg
istered Cossacks'" therefore received a salary from the king and were 
quartered in the cities. Only an insignificant number of Cossacks, 
consisting of the more wealthy elements, were included in the register. It was the intention of the Polish government to make serfs of the other Cossacks and return them to the landlords. 

At the end of the 16t^ century a process of class stratification set 
in among the registered Cossacks, with the appearance of an upper 
stratum of petty landed proprietors, who acquired their own home
steads, had their own seifs and owned various industries. 

The registered Cossack troops were under the command of a hetman, 
confirmed by the king, with a staff of chiefs, called the "general star
shiTia," elected by the Cossacks and consisting of well-to-do members 
of the Cobsack community.

===== Popular Uprisings Against Poland =====
Polish oppression in '*he 
Ukiaine and Byelorussia evoked a number of spontaneous popular 
outbreaks at the end of the 16th century. 1 1 these uprisings the Za
porozhye Cossacks usually joined foices with the peasant rebels. 
Sometimes a part of the registered Cossacks also joined them. During 
the uprisings the peasants set fire to Polish castles and killed the 
landlords, who, if they managed to escape, fled to Poland, whence they 
returned with Polish troops and cruelly avenged themselves on the 
peasants. The rebels sought refuge in the vast, dense forests along 
the middle reaches of the Dnieper, from where they waged a pro
tracted partisan waifare. 

The first big insurrections took place in the nineties of the 
16th century. In 1595 Severin Nalivaiko, the son of a fur-di'e.-ser, 
headed a rebellion which bioke out in Volhynia. Nalivaiko's 
detachments moved to Byeloiussia and stirred up the Byelorussian 
peasants. The rebels captured several cities: Slutbk, Mogilev and 
Pinsk. 

The Polish king, Sigismund m, sent a large army under Hetman 
ZolkieWbki to suppress the uprising. Nalivaiko^s detachment was 
surrounded near the city of Lubny. During an armistice the Poles 
treacherously killed the disarmed people and transported the leader 
of the uprising, Nalivaiko, to Warsaw, where he was tortured to death. 
The peasant movement against the Polish gentry continued into the 
beginning of the 17th century. 

In the thiities of the 17th century the Zaporozhskaya Seek rose 
up once moie against the Poles. The uprising was suppressed owing to 
the treachery of the eldeis. After this the Poles, with the help of a 
Flench engineer, built the foitiess of Kodak above the falls to prevent 
Zaporozhye from having any intei course with the Ukiaine. The Polish 
hetman invited the Cossacks to look at the fortification that had been 
put up against them. 

"What do you think of Kodaks" he asked mockingly. 

"What human Lands have built human hands will destroy " 
Bogdan Ivhmelnitski, the chief of a Cossack hundi*ed, replied 
to him.

A few years later another 
upiising occuired, during which 
the Cossacks actually destroyed 
the fortiess of Kodak. 

Xot until 1638, however, did 
the Polish troops succeed in 
crushing the popular rebellion 
m the Ukiame, The Polish Diet 
abolished "Tor all time" all 
Cossack privileges and self-gov
ernment . The hetman was 
replaced by a commissary 
of the Polish government . 
The number of registered Cos
sacks was reduced. They were 
placed under the command 
of the szlachta, the Ukrainian cities were garrisoned by Polish troops. 

==== The Struggle of the Ukrainian People against Poland ====

===== Bogdan Khmelnitski =====
After the rebellion of 1638 was suppressed 
there were no new peasant outbreaks in the Ukraine and Byelorussia 
for a period of ten years. Punitive expeditions of the Polish szlachta 
went deep into the Ukraine, on the left bank of the Dnieper, and the 
resistance of the peasants was broken. The Polish nobles called this 
a time of "golden peace." However, the hatred of the oppressed Uk
rainian and Byelorussian population for the Polish power grew all 
the more intense. 

In the spring of 1648 the Ukraine rose up once more against the 
oppression of the Polish gentry and the power of Poland. The move
ment was initiated by the Zaporozhye Cossacks under the leadership 
of Bogdan Khmelnitski. 

Bogdan Khmelnitski was a popular figuie in the Ukraine. He 
was an educated person, had studied at the Kiev Academy, and knew 
the Latin language. He had more than once been participant and 
leader of daring Cossack campaigns. As far back as the ’twenties 
Bogdan had fought together with the Poles against the Turks, the 
common enemy of the Ukraine and Poland. Bogdan’s father fell in 
the battle of Chechora near Jassy; Bogdan himself had been taken 
prisoner by the Turks who kept him in captivity for nearly two years. 
The Cossacks often elected him to carry on negotiations with the 
Polish government, at which times Bogdan defended the interests 
of the Cossacks.

Bogdan KHimelnitski was a 
prosperous Cossack and was includ
ed in the army register. His estate 
was situated not far from Chigirin . 
The dire condition of the Ukraine 
under Polish domination aroused 
Khmelnitski ’s indignation and 
wrath. Such indeed was the state 
of mind of many of the well-to-do 
registered Cossacks, who were better 
off than the peasants and rank-and
file Cossacks. Soon Bogdan Khmel
nitski personally experienced the 
savage tyranny of the Polish author
ities A Polish squiie by the name 
of Chaplinski unlawfully obtained 
an investiture from the Polish 
authorities to Khmelnitskies estate, 
suddenly took possession of his 
homestead and put Khmelnitski ’s 
whole household in chains. When 
Bogdan Khmelnitski sought justice 
against the offender, Chaplinski 
flogged Khmelnitski ’s ten-year-old 
son to death. Khmelnitski likewise failed to obtain redress at the king ^s court. This incident strikingly demonstrated to the Cossack elder the defenceless state of the 
Ukrainian people at the mercy of arbitrary Polish rule. 

lieturning home after his failure to obtain justice at Warsaw, 
Bogdan Khmelnitski gathered his Cossack friends in a secret confer
ence, at which he called upon them, for the first time, to raise a re
bellion against Polish domination. 

"Uan we leave our biothers in such distress^" he asked. have 
seen dreadful persecution everywhere. Our unhappy people ask for help." 

The old Cossacks replied: 'Tt is time to take up the sword, time 
to throw off the Polish yoke." 

The Polish gentry, learning of Khmelnitski ’s plans through some 
traitors, imprisoned him. Khmelnitski succeeded in escaping to Za
porozhye, where he fortified himself on one of the islands. Meanwhile, 
peasant outbreaks had begun in the Ukraine. There was not a village 
or hamlet where the call to rise was not heard. One Polish squire 
confiscated several thousand firearms which had been hidden by his 
peasants. The gentry hastily left their castles, abandoning their 
property, and fled to Poland. There was every sign of an imminent 
general uprising in the Ukraine.

Bogdan Khmelnitski realized that the struggle against the well
armed, numerous Polish troops would be a difficult one. He therefoie 
hit on the expedient of forming an alliance with the Crimean khan. 
Edimelnitski left Zaporozhye for the capital of the Crimea— Bakhchi
sarai. At that time the Crimean khan's displeasure was roused against 
the Polish king, who had not paid him any tribute for several years. 
The khan sent a body of Tatars with Khmelnitski xmder the command 
of one of his princes. Zajporozhshaya 8ech welcomed Bogdan's return 
from the Crimea with acclamation, and at an assembly of the Cossacks 
proclaimed him the hetman of the Cossack troops and presented him 
the insignia of hetman's office— the bulava^ or baton. 

In the spring of 1648 Khmelnitski and his Cossacks set forth from 
Zaporozhye. The Polish troops under Hetman Potocki went out to 
meet them. In the beginning of May Khmelnitski defeated a detached 
Polish army corps at Zheltiye Vody (Yellow Waters). The Cossacks 
serving in this corps had gone over to Khmelnitski before the battle 
started. News of the defeat caused Potocki to beat a hasty retreat, 
Khmelnitski pursued the enemy, and in the middle of May com. 
pletely routed him at Korsun. Hetman Potocki was taken prisoner
The Cossacks and Tatars obtained rich booty.

===== The Uprisings of the Peasants =====
The victories over the Polish 
troops won by the Cossacks under Bogdan Khmelnitski were followed 
by a wave of peasant uprisings that spread throughout the Ukraine. 
Landlords abandoned their castles and property and fled to Poland, 
The rebellious peasants found brave leaders in their own midst, notable 
among whom was Maxim Krivonos, or as he was called in folklore, 
Perebiinos (Broken Nose). Jeremiah Wisniowiecki, a rich Polish
Ukrairdan magnate, used incredibly cruel means in his attempt to 
crush the rebellion. But he was unable to withstand the encounter 
with the Cossaek-peasant detachments led by Maxim Krivonos, 
who appeared with astonishing rapidity at rallying points of the 
Polish gentry. The Ukraine was followed by Byelorussia, where 
dozens of peasant detachments were also formed. A contingent of 
Byelorussian peasants wder Krivoshapka operated daringly and 
efectively. 

Bogdan Bdimelnitski started his war with Poland in the interests 
of the registered Cossacks. He demanded from Poland that she increase 
the number of registeied Cossack troops, restore the Cossacks the 
rights they had been deprived of, pay up overdue salaries, and cease 
her persecution of the Orthodox church. The mass uprising of the 
peasants and the support rendered by the urban population showed 
Khmelnitski that it was not the Cossacks alone who were fighting 
Poland, but the entire Ukrainian people, Bogdan Khmelnitski headed 
the liberation novement of the Ukrainian people. 

Together with Maxim Krivonos, who had joined him, he inflicted another, even more terrible defeat upon the Polish royal troops in September 1648, on the Pilyavka Itiver. 

The victory over the main Poli&h foices on the Pilyavlca Piver 
opened the way to Warsaw before Klimelnilski. KJimelnitski contin
ued his offensive, and diiving the Poles befuie him out of the TJ]a*aine, 
he advanced as far as Lwow and Zamostye, then returned to Kiev. 
The people acclaimed him che hborator of the Ulcraine from Polish 
bondage. After l^eariiig a yoke for thioe bundled years, Kiev was 
liberated and retiuned to the Ukraine. 

The Polish goveinmeiit sent envoys to Kiev to conclude peace, 
hoping thereby to gain time to collect a new army. Khnielnitski, 
bearing in mind the successes of the peasant uprisings, demanded 
that the Ukraine be freed of Polish troops. "I shall wrest the entire 
Ukrainian people from Polish captivity," he said to the Polish envoys. 
The peace negotiations came to nothing.

===== The Zborov Peace =====
Khmelnitski opened a new campaign in the 
summer of 1649. He was joined by the Crimean khan, who came with 
a large Tatar force. Near the city of Zborov the Cossacks and Tatars sur
rounded the Polish troops. However, the Polish gentry sueeeded in 
bribing the Crimean khan, who, upon receiving a large amount of 
gold from them, suggested to Khmelnitski that he conclude peace 
with the king. Appreciating the danger the Tatars represented in 
the event of his failing out with the khan, Khmelnitski consented 
and concluded a peace treaty which has become known as the Zborov 
Treaty. By this treaty part of the Ukraine was set up as an independent 
administration with its own hetman, Bogdan Edimelnitski . The number 
of registered Cossacks was raised from 6,000 to 40,000. 

With the conclusion of the Zborov Peace Tieaty in 1649 ended the 
first stage in the Ukraine’s war of liberation. The peace terms satisfied 
the main demands of the rich registered Cossacks. It was otherwise, 
however, with the rank-and-file Cossacks an^ the peasants. Many peas
ants who had fought against the Polish gentry and had not been includ
ed among the 40,000 registered troops provided for by the peace treaty, 
had to return to their former places , to their former owners . The peasants 
remained as of old feudal sens of the landlords. After the conclusion 
of peace the Polish gentry began to return to their Ukrainian estates. 
The Zborov Peace Treaty did not satisfy the peasants, who therefore 
did not wish to cease their struggle and refused to let the gentry return 
to their estates.

===== Renewal of War =====
Poland regarded the Zborov Peace as a respite 
which it needed for reorganizing its defeated army. The gentry also took 
advantage of this respite to crush the peasant movement. The fields were 
strewn with the corpses of peasants and city people, who had been tor
tured and murdered. Many peasant leaders lost their lives, among them 
Maxim Krivonos. In the beginning of 1651 Polish troops invaded western region of the Ukraine before Kbmelnitski had a chance to assemble his Cossacks to repel the attack. The valiant Nechai fell 
in the beginning of the new war. 

In the spring of 1651 a large Polish army headed by the king took 
the field. The Pope absolved of their sins all those who took part 
in the war against the Ukrainian people. Kbmelnitski once more joined 
forces with the Crimean khan. The battle began in June 1651, near 
Berestechko, but during the course of the fighting the Tatars suddenly 
deserted the Cossacks and withdrew. Bogdan Kbmelnitski hastened to 
the khan to urge him to return to the battlefield. But the khan not 
only did not return, but detained the hetman. The Cossacks and 
peasants, left leaderless, entrenched themselves in their camp 
and for several days bravely repelled the attacks of the Poles. Bo
gun, known alike to the Cossacks and Poles for his extraordinary 
strength and courage, especially distinguished himself in these clashes. 
The Cossacks elected Bogun as their leader. He organized sallies 
and amazed the enemy by his military cunning and the daring of 
his unexpected attacks. 

However, the forces were unequal, and the necessity of effecting a 
withdrawal became obvious to the Cossacks. During the night some of 
them left unnoticed by a wooden paving laid across the swamp. When 
dawn came the Poles rushed the camp, and wreaked cruel vengeance 
upon the few remaining defenders, among whom were many poorly
armed peasantsAbout three hundred Cossacks entrenched themselves 
upon a small island and stubbornly continued to defend themselves. 
The Poles proposed that they smTender and promised to spare their 
lives, but the answer they got from the Cossacks was: 'We do not hold 
our lives dear, and we abhor the favour of the enemy." Saying which 
the Cossacks embraced each other and rushed at the Poles. All the 
Cossacks died the death of heroes. 

It was not until a month later that the Crimean khan released Kbmel
nitski . By that time the Poles had taken Kiev, and the Tatars had rav
aged the country ruthlessly. The hetman had to agree to the onerous 
terms of a peace treaty signed in the autumn of 1651 at Belaya Tserkov. 
Almost everything that had been won in hard struggle was now lost 
again. The number of registered Cossack troops was reduced to 20,000. 
The Cossacks were deprived of the rights they had received under the 
Zhorov Peace Treaty. 

When the Polish landlords returned to the Ukraine, they cruelly 
avenged themselves on the peasants for their participation in the 
struggle. Fleeing from persecution the peasants thronged to the left 
bank of the Dnieper and pushed on further into the territory of the 
Russian state.The Ukrainian territory xmder Polish power became quick
ly deserted. Meanwhile the Ukrainian population colonized the fertile 
regions along the upper reaches of the Northern Donets, where dozens of new Ukrainian settlements sprang up. This region came to be called the ^"^SldbodsTcaya Uhraim.^* 

Despite the peace of Belaya Tserkov, detachments of the Pol'sh geiitry 
continued to pillage Ukrainian villages and settlements, to rob and 
kill the inhabitants, sparing neither old people, women, nor children. 
The Polish king made peace with the Crimean khan and gave him leave 
to despoil the Ukrainianpopulation during a period of forty days .An end
less stream of fettered captives filled the roads to the Crimea. The Cri
means carried off tens of thousands of men and women, doomed to a 
life of slavery. An ancient Ukrainian song says of those times:<blockquote>VhraiTLe^s people grieving^ they have nowhere to hide, 

The hordes of normd horsemen o^er children's bodies ride, 

The tender babes they trample, the old they lead away. 

With arms behind them shachhd to be the dread khan's prey, </blockquote>

==== Incorporation of the Ukraine into the Russian State. War with Poland ====

===== Incorporation of the Ukraine into the Russian State =====
The war 
of 1648-1651 clearly demonstrated that the Uki*aine could not fiee her
self from Polish bondage unaided. Surrounded as she was by more power
ful states, there could be no question of securing independence at that 
time. Therefore, when, in 1652, the Ukrainian peasants and Cossacks 
rose a second time against the Polish landlords and the Polish power, 
Khmelnitsfci entered into negotiations with the Moscow government for 
the Ukraine’s incorporation into the Russian state. At the Zemski 
Sobor assembled in Moscow in the autumn of 1653 Russia decided to 
take the Ukraine under her protection and to declare war on Poland. 
On January 8, 1654, the Rada, ''i.e.'', the conference of representatives 
of the Ukraine Cossacks, met in Pereyaslavl, with Moscow envoys 
attending. Hetman Bogdan Khmelnitski addressed the assembled 
Cossacks, reminding them of the difSlcult position the Ukrainian people 
were in. 

"You all know," he said, "that our enemy wishes to exterminate us 
so thoroughly, that even the name Rūs (''i.e.'', Ukrainian) will never again 
be mentioned in our land. Therefore select one of four rulers for your
selves. The first is the Tmkish sultan; he oppresses the Greeks. The second 
is the Crimean khan; he has shed the blood of our brothers many times; 
the third is the Polish king. There is no need to tell you of the persecu
tion by the Polish gentry. The fourth is the tsar of great Rūs, the 
Eastern tsar." 

Thousands of voices replied: "We will (''i.e.'', wish) to be under the 
Eastern tsar." 
Under an agreement concluded somewliat later in Moscow the Ukraine received the right of belf-goirernment; headed by an elected het
man. The number of registeied Cos acks was set at 60,000. 

It was much more difficult for the Ukiainian people to tolerate the 
rule of the Polish king and the Polish landlords than to be subjects 
of the Russian tsar. The Velikormsi (Gi eat Russians) were kin to the 
Ukrainian and Byelorussian peoples by origin, language and culture. 
The Ukraine’s incorporation into the Russian stale signified a reunion 
of t wo gi eat fratei nal peoples which was to save the Ukraine from seizure 
by Poland and Tuikey.

===== War with Poland and Sweden =====
Poland was unwilling to relinquish 
the ULraine to Russia. Only war, theiefore, could liberate the Ukraine 
from Polish domination. In Moscow it was decided to begin a war with 
Poland for both the Ukraine and Byelorussia. The war broke out in 1654 
and continued, with intermissions, lor thiiteen years (1654-1667). During 
the very first year of the war almost the entire territory of Byelorussia 
was liberated from Polish oppression. In many cities the residents them
selves drove out the Polish garrisons. The population greeted the Russian troops with joy. In the autumn Smolensk sui rendered. The follow
ing summer Russian troops occupied Vilno. At the same time Ukrainian 
and Russian troops waged a successful struggle in the region west of 
the Dnieper against the Poles, and the Tatars who had gone over 
to their side, -^ter iibeiaiing the Ukiainian lands, Bogdan Khmelni
Iski and the Muscovy waj'wodes croshed the Polish frontier and took 
possession of Lublin. 

In 1656 the Swedish kir g, Chaile? X, intent on seizing ceilain regions 
of Poland, intervened in the wai. He occupied Warsaw, Cracow, and 
many other Polish cities, Swedrsh aggression induced the Polish govern
ment to start peace negotiations with Muscovy. In the interests of a 
lasting peace, the government o Muscovy demanded of the Polish en
voys the relinquishment of the Ukraine and B;s eloi ussia. Since, however, 
Poland did not agree to these terms, only a truce vns signed, by the 
terms of which both sides ceased hostilities. 

The struggle with Poland once more proved to Russia her need of 
Baltic ports in order to maintain relations with Westerm Europe, whence 
she recerved aims and military supplies. The government of Muscovy 
decided to make an attempt to wrest from Sweden the southern shore of 
the Baltic Sea, which the latter had seized in the first half of the 17th 
century . The war wrth Sweden started in 1656. The Russian army captu
red seveiaJ Swedish foi tresses on the Western Dvina and besieged Riga. 
The siege was a failme, inasmuch as the garrison of the Swedish fortress 
received reinforcement from the sea . The war dragged on for several years 
with alternating success. In 1661 the Treaty of Kardis was concluded; 
according to its terms both sides retained theii former possessions. This 
time, too, Russia failed to acquire an outlet to the Baltic Sea.

In 1657 Bogdan Khmelnitski died. His hetmanship had been recog
nized throughout the Ukraine. After his death a struggle for power broke 
out among the rival factions of Ukrainian elders. Poland took ad
vantage of this conflict and tried to bribe the Ukrainian feudal lords, 
the elders and the rich Cossacks, with money and promises. The new 
hetman, Wigowski, a szlachcic by origin, and some of his Cossack 
elders went over to the side of Poland. In league with the Crimean 
khan he succeeded in defeating the Russian troops near Konotop. 
In violation of the truce the Polish troops also reopened hostilities. 
However, the rank-and-file Cossacks and the Ukrainian peasants did 
not support the Polish faction, but continued to fight manfully shoul
der to shoulder with the Russian troops for the liberation of the Ukraine. 
Both sides, Poland and Russia, were greatly exhausted by the pro
tracted war. At last, in 1667, after prolonged negotiations, the Truce of 
Andrusovo was signed (in the village of Andrusovo, near Smolensk) for 
13^/2 years. Russia retained part of Byelorussia, Smolensk, and the 
Ukrainian lands on the left bank of the Dnieper. On the right bank of 
the Dnieper Russia acquired Kiev and the adjoining district for two 
years, but it did not return this land to the Poles upon the expiry of 
this period. In 1686 the Poles had to agree to the xmion of Kiev with 
Russia in perpetuity. 

=== Popular Uprisings in Russia in the Second Half of the 17th Century ===

==== The Moscow Uprising of 1662 ====

===== Intensification of the Mass Struggle =====
Increased feudal oppression 
in the 17th century led to the intensification of the class struggle, 
especially in connection with the war against Poland, since the entire 
burden of taxation and compulsory services fell on the shoulders of 
the exploited population. Sporadic uprisings broke out in different 
parts of the country in the sixties of the 17th century, followed during 
1670-1671 by a peasant war which swept over the vast southeastern 
section of Russia. 

The country’s economic difficulties during the war with Poland over 
the Ukraine were aggravated by the disorganization of the monetary 
system. In 1654 the tsarist govermn'ent, to meet heavy military expen
ditures, islued a copper currency, whereas until then only silver coins had been in circulation. The government placed the copper coinage on a par with silver although the value of copper was only about one
hundredth that of silver. During a period of eight years a tremendous 
number of copper coins were minted. This led to a sharp rise in the 
price of all commodities, especially of food. The peasants stopped sell
ing corn for cojiper money. The resultant economic chaos mostly affect
ed the city poor. The Streltsi and lessor military servitors, who re
ceived their compensation in copper coin, also foimd themselves in 
sore straits. 

Driven to the point of despair the indigent townspeople started a 
revolt in Moscow on July 25, 1662. The morning of that day placards 
appeared in various parts of the capital, giving the names of the most 
unpopular tsarist boyars and rich merchants. A crowd of people, in
cluding craftsmen, soldiers and Streltsi set off for the village of Kolo
menskoye, near Moscow, where Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich was residing 
at the time. The crowd forced the tsar to come out of the church in order 
to negotiate with them, and threateningly demanded that the most 
odious of the boyars be delivered into their hands, that taxes be abated 
and copper coinage abolished. The frightened tsar, wishing to gain time, 
promised everything they asked. But the rebels did not trust him, and 
shouted: '"What are we to believe?" The tsar took his oath that he would 
do ovor^i/hing, and struck hands on it with one of the people in the crowd. 
Deceived by the tsar ’s promise the crowd was on its way back to Moscow, 
when it met and mingled with another crowd coming to Kolomen
skoye from Moscow. The insurgents once more broke into Kolomenskoye 
just at tho moment when the tsar was mounting his horse to set ofi for 
Moscow. 

By <-his time regiments of the Streltsi had been drawn up in Kolomen
skoyo, having been let through the back gates of the royal residence. 
The tsar changed his tone and commanded: "Let these people be beaten 
and slashed to death and those that remain be seized alive.’* Tho Strel
tsi suddenly attacked the unarmed crowd and drove it to the Moskva 
River. Many were hacked to death, many others wore drowned in the 
I iver; most were taken prisoner. The tsar’s government cruelly punished 
the rebels. However, fearing a new outbreak, the tsar abolished copper 
money. 

==== The Volga Region in the 17th Century ====

===== Peoples of the Volga Region =====
The vast forests and plains of the Vol
ga region on both banLs of the Volga were inhabited by non-Russian, 
Ural-Altaic tribes. In the wooded area east of the Vyatka River lived 
the Udmurts (Votyaks), The Mari (Choremissi) inhabited the left bank 
pf the Volga between the Vyatka and Vetluga rivers and the right bank 
between the Volga and the Sura rivers. They were divided into the "meadow" dwellers inhabiting the lowlands on the left bank of the Volga, which was covered with forests and marshland, and the "hill" 
people, who lived on the right high bank of the river. The Chuvashes 
and Mordvinians were neighbours of the Mari. The Mordvinian settle^ 
ments covered the territory of the Lower Oka and the upper reaches of 
the Sura. Tatars lived on both banks of the Lower Kama. The lands 
southeast of the Kama and along the Ufa Biver were occupied by 
the Bashkirs (Turki). There were also Bashkirs living beyond the Urals, 
along the upper reaches of the Tobol River. After the conquest of the 
Kazan khanate by Ivan IV all these peoples were incorporated into the 
Russian state. 

The tsarist government collected from the conquered peoples of 
the Volga region a tax in kind, the tribute which they had formerly 
(until 1552) been paying to the Kazan khan and his vassals. Part 
of the population paid in addition a money tax. The tsar’s tax
gatheieis committed all sorts of outrages, and confiscated the people’s 
corn and cattle. The monasteries and landlords endeavoured to seize 
the fertile lands and forests which abounded in fur-bearing animals, 
and to enslave the population. 

To establish its power more firmly over the Volga peoples, the tsar
ist govermnent resorted to the assistance of the church, which was 
converting the people to Orthodoxy. Forcible Christianization was 
particularly intensified during the patriarchy of Nikon. The Ortho
dox priests gathered together the peasants of the Mordvinian villages 
and baptized them, then compelled these people to hew down their 
"sacred" groves and burn the log structures placed above the graves of 
their ancestors.

===== The Condition of Bashkiria =====
The chief occupation of the Bashkirs 
was nomadic herding. The Bashkirs also engaged in hunting for fur-bear
ing animals, collecting the honey of wild bees, and fishing. By the 17th 
century the Bashkirs in some places had already begun to cultivate 
the soil. Villages appeared, consisting of small log cabins. During the 
summer the Bashkirs drove their herds of cattle and droves of horses 
to graze on the steppe, returning to their winter settlements in the 
late autumn. 

Bashkiria was divided into volosts; each volost in its turn consisted 
of several communities. The volosts were made up of people who con
sidered themselves descendants of a single clan. In the 17th century, 
however, the clan system among the Bashkirs had disintegrated. Al
though the pasture lands were nominally the common property of the 
entire volost or of its subdivision, the community, actually the rich 
people, who were called princes, tarlchani and hatyri^ disposed of the 
lands. They possessed large herds of cattle, received substantial in
comes from the population, and forced the dependent people to work on 
their estates. 
The Bashkirs, like the other peoples of the Middle Volga, had to pay tribute to the tsarist government in the form of marten, fox, squirrel, 
and other valuable furs. In the 17th century the Russian landlords and 
the monasteries seized the rich Bashkirian lands (dense forests, ex
cellent fisheries, salt mines, the black-earth steppe, pasture land, and 
tilths) greatly to the detriment of Bashkirian cattle breeding and 
woodland pursuits. In order to strengthen its power the tsarist 
government built a large number of fortified cities here, among them 
the city of Ufa. 

===== The Kalmucks =====
The Kalmucks (Mongols) appeared in the region of 
the Lower Volga in the thirties of thel7th century. Formerly they had led 
a nomadio life in Asia, north of Lake Zaisan, in the mountainous land 
known as Jungaria. The Kalmucks lived in tribes ruled by princes. 
The tribes were independent of each other, but when threatened by an 
attack of neighbouring peoples, they were apt to form a league under the 
leadership of the strongest tribe and its prince. 

In the beginning of the 17th century one of the more populous 
Elalmuck tribes brought its camps close to the upper reaches of the 
Irtysh River and started attacking Russian towns. Moving further 
southwest, some of the Kalmucks, in the thirties of the 17th century, 
occupied the steppe between the Yaik and the Volga, In 1656 these 
Kalmucks swore allegiance to Russia. At the end of the 17th and 
beginning of the 18th century the Volga Kalmucks were ruled by 
Ayuka Khau, who, though he professed allegiance to the Russian 
tsar, conducted himself independently and even attacked Russian 
towns along the Volga. The Jungaria Kalmucks formed a state 
which grew very strong at the end of the 17th century.

===== Uprisings in the Volga Region and Western Siberia =====
The peoples 
along the Volga fought stubbornly against the tsarist government, 
defended their lands against encroachment, and frequently raised 
rebellions. Some of these revolts lasted for several years. The largest 
outbreaks were those of the Bashkirs, which were adhered to by other 
peoples of the Volga and Western Siberia — the Tatars, Mari (Chere
missi), Chuvashes, Kalmucks, Mansi, and Khanti. 

In 1662 an uprising broke out simultaneously in several parts 
of Bashkiria and Western Siberia. A descendant of the Siberian khan 
Kuchum led the revolt of the Tatars, Bashkirs, and Voguls (Mansi) 
in Western Siberia. The insurgents attacked Russian fortified cities 
and destroyed the monasteries and Russian settlements. The rebellion 
lasted for several years and was suppressed with difficulty. The 
tsarist troops, reinforced by regiments of "foreign formation" 
were sent from Moscow to the Volga, where they exterminated the 
population, not even sparing "mere infants," as the official report 
expressed it. 
When this uprising was crushed, the tsarist government took possession of other Bashkirian lands. Young Bashkirs were forcibly 
conscripted into the tsar’s army and sent to fight against the Crimea. 
A new Bashkirian uprising broke out in the middle of the ’seventies, 
at first merely in the form of isolated armed conflicts, which reached 
its climax in 1682, Seit Sadir, the elder of one of the Bashkirian vol
osts, directing the rebellion (it was called the Seit rebellion after 
him). The Kalmucks, headed by Ayuka Khan, supported the Bash
kirs. The Kalmuck leader played traitor by going over to the tsarist 
government; this circumstance, combined vdth the ever-growing 
rivalry and feuds between Kalmucks and Bashkirs over pasturage, 
facilitated the suppression of the uprising. 
==== Popular Uprising under the Leadership of Stepan Razin ====

===== The Don Cossacks in the 17th Century =====
The Don Cossacks were 
not a homogeneous people. Those living on the Lower Don were called 
the ** lowers." Some of them, the rich (or domovitiye — thrifty ones), 
who had seized elective posts, formed a group of their own. They 
traded with Russian cities, as well as with the Caucasus, the Crimea 
and Turkey. In exchange for grain, wine, weapons, gunpowder, cloth, 
and other commodities imported from Russia, the rich Cossacfe sup
plied fish, furs, good Nogai horses and military booty. They used the 
labour of the poor Cossacks, the golytba, in their industrial pursuits 
and trade. The rich Cossacks supplied the poor with arms, clothing 
and food, and sent them on freebooting expeditions. They robbed the 
trading vessels of Muscovy merchants plying on the Volga, raided 
the Caspian coast, and pillaged the domains of the Crimean Tatars. 
When successful, the Cossacks brought back with them rich spoils, 
the greater share of which was appropriated by the wealthy Cossacks. 
The administrative centre of the Lower Don" Cossacks was the city 
of Cheikassk. 

The Cossacks living on the Middle Don and its tributaries were 
called the "uppers." They, too, had among them a number of more 
prosperous Cossacks, who had succeeded in acquiring their own farm
steads. Some of them had been born on the Don and had lived there many 
years. They were called starozhily—oldi settlers. But the bulk of the 
"upper" Cossacks belonged to the Cossack poor, whose numbers were 
constantly being augmented by "newcomers" from Russian cities, 
consisting of fugitive peasants, serfs, poor townsfolk, and other proper
tyless people. Meanwhile the fertile lands on the upper left tributaries 
of the Don were being seized by the monasteries, big landowners, mem
bers of the royal family and the great boyars. The runaway peasants aud serfs were in danger of being returned to their former landloids or enslaved by the local landowners. 

In the sixties of the 17th century, impoverishment and hunger 
drove a still larger number of "fugitives" and "newcomers" to the Don. 
With the increase in population on the Don there was a palpable short
age of corn, which was imported from the more northern Russian cities.

===== Uprising of Stepan Razin =====
In the ’sixties signs of unrest were in 
evidence among the hungry Cossack poor. In 1666 the valiant Cossack 
ataman, Vasili TJss, stirred up the Don poor against Muscovy and came 
before Tula with a large Cossack force. He was joined by the serfs of the 
southern landlords. At the same time an ataman appeared among the 
poor of the Don, Stepan Timofeyevich Razin, who became the leader 
of a great Cossacx and peasant uprising. 

Li the spring of 1667 a detachment of the poor under the command 
of Stepan Razin made its way from the Don to the Volga. The Cossacks 
seized severaJ river boats with com and other merchandise belonging 
to the tsar, the patriarch, and the rich merchant, Vasili Shorin One of 
the boats carried exiles who were fettered in irons. The Cossacks killed 
the guard and set the prisoners free. Razin said to the exiles, the 
Streltsi and the oarsmen; "You are all free, go where you will. I shall 
not use force, but whoever wishes to stay with me will be a free Cossack. 

I have come to fight only the boyars and rich lords, but with the poor ^ 
and simple folk I am ready to share everything as a brother." 

Razin ’s Cossacks sailed down to the Caspian, slipping past Astra
khan; they went in thirty-five galleys, and headed for the River Yaik 
(the Ural), where they seized the fortified town of Yaitsk. 

Razin spent the winter on the Yaik. The following spring he went 
down to the sea and sailed to the shores of Persia. By this time Razin ’s 
force numbered several thousand Cossacks. He ravaged the Caucasian 
shores of the Caspian. When the Cossack craft approached Persia, Razin 
sent several men to the shah to say that he and his Cossacks were ready 
to remain and live on his lands forever, since they did not want to suffer 
the persecutions of Muscovy’s boyars any longer. The shah, acting in 
accord with Muscovy, ordered Razin ’s envoys to be done to death. 
At that the Cossacks started to pillage and sack Persian towns. The 
shah sent fifty boats with soldiers against Razin’s detachment. A 
fierce sea engagement took place, during which most of the Persian 
ships were sunk. 

Notwithstanding these successes, Razin could not remain any long
er on the Caspian shores. The Cossacks had suffered heavy losses in 
killed and wounded in their battles with the Persians, and disease 
was rife among the survivors. 

In the autumn of 1669 Razin reappeared at Astrakhan. During 
his absence the city had been strongly fortified and its garrison in
creased. 
' The Astrakhan waywodes, however, were reluctant to fight against Eazin, who had the avowed sympathy of the population. Anxious to 
get rid of this leader of the Cossack poor as quickly as possible, the 
waywodes agreed to let Bazin’s detachment pass up the Don, but de
manded that he surrender the booty and weapons he was carrying. 

The Astrakhan poor greeted Stepan Bazin enthusiastically, call
ing him their batha (father). Bazin’s Cossacks, who had been in tatters 
when they had set off on their expedition, were now dressed in exqui
site silk clothes embroidered with gold, Bazin generously distributed 
gold coins and valuables to the people. 

He did not surrender his arms, as the wa3rwodes had demanded. In
stead, he set off with a well-armed detachment for the Don, where the 
fame of his successes had already become widespread. Some of the 
Astrakhan inhabitants went off with him. 

On the Don, just above the mouth of the Donets, B.azin’s Cossacks 
built a fortress on an island, which was named the Kagalnitahi Oorodok. 
Cossacks, peasants, serfs, as well as runaway Streltsi hastened to this 
town from all sides to join Bazin. Taking part of his detachment with 
him, Eazin set off for Cherkassk, where a Cossack assembly had gath
ered for negotiations with the tsar’s envoy, Yevdokimov, who had been 
sent from Moscow to collect data on the movement of the poor Cossacks 
and to promise gifts to the rich Cossacks if they remained loyal to the 
tsar. Stepan Eazin arrived on the scene just when the rich Cossacks were 
about to elect a return mission to Moscow. With the appearance of Ea
zin in Cherkassk the temper of the Cossacks changed sharply; the poor 
went over to his side, and the tsar’s envoy, Yevdokimov, was killed. 

Erojn Cherkassk Stepan Eazin, with new detachments of poor, 
sailed up the Don and crossed over to the Volga. Cossacks and peas
ants kept joining him in whole detachments, groups and singly. Among 
these was Vasili TJss. He became Bazin’s closest aide. By this time the 
rebels numbered over 7,000 men. Eazin, aided by the inhabitants, 
easily captured Tsaritsyn (now called Stalingrad) where he seized 
large supplies of arms. 

Eazin ’s second appearance on the Volga in the spring of 1670 
marked the beginning of a new period in the Cossack and peasant 
uprising. At first Eazin had appeared in the role of a Cossack free
booting ataman, though even then his operations had differed from the 
usual Cossack raids undertaken with the object of obtaining war booty. 
He freed the slaves and always showed himself to be the enemy of the 
waywodes, the nobles and the rich merchants. The success of his cam
paign contributed to the rapid rise of the Cossack movement on the 
Don. Talk of the glorious ataman of the Cossack poor spread far beyond 
the boundaries of the Cossack settlements. Eazin became the leader of 
a spontaneous popular uprising. After taking Tsaritsyn he decided 
to march into the interior of Russia. To do this he first had to take possession of Astrakhan and entrench himself on the Lower Volga. The Astrakhan waywode sent a force of Streltsi against Kazin; but these 
men killed their officers and went over to the insurgents. In June 1670 
Razin approached Astrakhan, The city was surrounded by a high 
stone wall with towers and battlements bristling with cannon. The 
waywode prepared to repel the attack. But many Streltsi and towns
folk within the city were only waiting for an opportunity to help the 
Cossacks seize the fortress. 

When dusk fell the bells rang out, sounding the tocsin. This was 
the signal that the Cossacks had begun their attack. The armed nobles 
rushed to that part of the wall from where the shouts of the combatants 
could be heard. Meanwhile the Cossacks, under cover of darkness, 
approached the fortress unnoticed from the other side. They set upscal
ing ladders against the high walls and climbed into the city. 

The residents were waiting on the walls to help them. Five cannon 
shots were fired as a signal that the city had surrendered. The poor of 
Astrakhan joined Razin ’s Cossacks and killed the nobles and all 
others who offered any resistance. By morning Astrakhan was 
captured. 

From Astrakhan Razin moved up the Volga. The uprising spread 
far and wide over both banks of the river. Razin ’s forces grew daily. 
Cossacks, Streltsi, serfs and peasants flocked to him from every side. 
Hatred against the landlords was so intense that the peasants brought 
with them the severed heads of their lords in bags, and threw them at 
Razin 's feet. Since Razin ’s campaign up the Volga the peasant popu
lation became the chief force of the uprising. 

The insurgents were poorly armed, many of them having mere
ly axes, imives and lances. But the Streltsi of the royal garrisonf had 
no desire to fight against the people. They tied the nobles and officers 
hand and foot and opened the gates of the fortresses to Razin. Thus, 
with the help of the Streltsi and the population Razin quickly cap
tured Saratov (old Saratov was situated on the left bank of the Volga, 
somewhat above the Saratov of today) and Samara (now the city of 
Kuibyshev), but he encountered stubborn resistance at Simbirsk (now 
Ulyanovsk). 

Razin’s messengers went throughout the countryside and secretly 
circulated appeals in which Razin called upon "all the rabble,** that 
is, all the poor and oppressed, to rise in rebellion. He said he was acting 
for the "Great Sovereign" against the traitors — the boyars and nobles. 
Razin himself, like most of the people, naively believed that the tsar
ist power would espouse their cause against the boyars. It was rumoured 
among the people that the Tsarevich Alexei Alexeyevich, the tsar*s 
son, and the brave Nechai, leader of Ukrainian peasant detachments, 
were with Razin. As a matter of fact, Nechai had long since been killed 
by the Polish gentry in the Ukraine, and Tsarevich Alexei Alexeyevich had died befoie the uprising began. 

Razin’s appeals for an 
uprising were addressed 
not only to the Russians, 
but also to the Tatar, 
Chuvash, Mordvinian and 
other oppressed peoples. 
The population on both 
the right and the left banks 
of the Volga responded to 
his call. 

Razin’s successes on 
the Volga and the rapid 
spread of the peasant re
bellion seriously alarmed 
Moscow. The tsar mobil
ized the Moscow and pro
vincial nobles, the Streltsi, 
and regiments of "foreign 
formation." The whole of 
this huge army, led byPrin
ce Yuri Dolgoruki,was sent 
to suppress the uprising. 

For almost a month 
Razin besieged Simbirsk. 
In the beginning of Octo
ber 1670 Razin ’s detach
ment and the tsar’s troops, 
which had come up, met 
in battle near Siml3irsk, 
In the hand-to-hand mel6e 
that ensued there was such 


a confusion of combatants that it was difficult to distinguish friend 
from foeRazin could be seen in the thick of the battle. He had a sabre 


cut on his head and a bullet wound in the leg, yet he kept on fighting. 
In spite of its obdurate resistance, Razin ’s detachment was routed, 
Razin retreated to the Hon with a small group of Cossacl?s, 

Although Razin was defeated at Simbirsk, the peasant rebellion 
continued to spread until it embraced a tremendous teiritoiy: up the 
Volga to Kazan and Kizhni Novgorod, and on the right bank of the 
Volga almost to the Oka River, The rebels seized Temnikov and Penza 
and besieged Tambov and other cities. The Kalmucks, Tatars, Mord
vinians, Cheremissi (Mari ), Chuvashes and Bashkirs on the right and 
left banks of the Volga joined the insiuTection.

On the right bank of the Volga the serfs united with the poor urban 
population. The peasants destroyed the estates of the landlords and 
successfully waged a partisan war against the tsar’s troops. One big 
rebel force was commanded by a peasant woman named Alyona > a na
tive of Arzamas. The rebellion on the Volga found a response in other 
places as well, near Kolomna outside of Moscow, and in the Northern 
Maritime region. Stepan Razin ’s brother, IVol, operated in Slobodskaya 
XJhraina, However, the isolated peasant detachments were unable 
to resist the well-armed troops for a long time. The tsar’s army con
verged on the insurgent areas from diflFerent sides and wreaked savage 
vengeance on the population. 

The captured peasants were taken to the city of Arzamas where 
they were tortured and executed. Gallows were put up all around the 
city* A foreign eyewitness testified that 11,000 people were executed in 
Arzamas in three months. 

By means of inhuman cruelty the tsar’s waywodes hoped to instil 
fear into the peasants and force them into submission. But the leaders 
of the detachments held up bravely even under torture.

^VThat were you planning to do?" the hangmen asked them. 

^We wanted to take Moscow and kill all of you boyars, nobles and 
clerks," was the reply. 

Alyona, the woman leader of a peasant rebel force, was also seized. 
Condemned to be burnt at the stake, she calmly heard the death sen
tence and, dying, said: 

'Ti all had fought as I did, Prince Yuri would have fled from us for all he was worth." 

By the beginning of 1671 the main hotbeds of the uprising on the 
right bank of the Volga had been suppressed by tsarist troops, iiter the 
poor Cossacks had left together with Razin for the Volga, only the 
wealthy Cossacks remained on the Don. In April, 1671, they seized 
Razin in Kagalnitski Gorodok and brought him to Moscow themselves. 
There Razin was subjected to excruciating tortures, but he did not 
utter a single groan. In June 1671, in Moscow, Razin was quartered 
(the executioners first cut off his hands and legs, then his head). 

The Lower Volga region held out longest. After Razin had set 
out for Simbirsk, Ataman Vasili Uss remained in Astrakhan. Another 
companion-in-arms of Razin^s, Pyodor Sheludyak, undertook 
a new campaign up the Volga in July 1671 and got as far as 
Simbirsk, but he was defeated and forced to return to Astrakhan. 
The following month a large tsarist army went down to Astrakhan. 
Pyodor Sheludyak defended the city for about two months, 
but at the end of November the tsar’s troops took possession 
of Astrakhan, the last stronghold of the rebels. Sheludyak was 
hanged. 

Por a long time the people refused to believe that Razin had per
ished, The old folks said that Razin had merely gone into hiding and 
that the time would come when he would reappear on the Volga once 
more and send out a call to the Cossack and the peasant poor. The 
memory of the brave ataman, Stepan Timofeyevich Razin, lives in 
numerous folk songs which became known all over Russia. <blockquote>Eise thou, 0 sun, 0 thou rvMy om. 

Over the mountains that tower so, 

Over the speedwells that greenly grow, 

Warm thou our bones: we are honest folk,

Poor though we are, yet we'll hear no yoke.

Thieves are we not, or your brigands dread,

Stepan Bazin---by him we're led.</blockquote>The great Russian poet, Pushkin, has called Stepan Razin the 
most poetic figure, in Russian history .

After the suppression of the peasant uprisings at the end of the 
17th century, the peasantry once more relapsed into passive resist
ance against their condition of serfdom, ''i.e.'', going off into the forest, 
the steppe, or the borderland. The movement among the Baskolniki 
(dissenters) increased. Many settlements of the Baskolniki sprang 
up in the almost inaccessible woody regions along the Medveditsa and Khoper riTers, left tributaries of the Don. Some of the BasTcolnihi leaders even preached non-resistance to violence, and suicideUnder 
the influence of their fanatical preachings, the dissenters at the end 
of the 17th century often resorted to mass suicide by burning them
selves alive. 

The uprising under Stepan Kazin was the largest movement against 
feudal oppression in the 17th century. The insurgent Cossacks, peasants, 
serfs and the non-Russian population of the Volga seized a 
vast territory and inflicted a number of defeats upon the tsarist 
troops. 

All the peasant wars in Europe and Russia represented a struggle 
against feudal oppression on the part of a peasantry which was en
slaved or in the process of enslavement. 

While stressing the progressive aspect of the peasant wars, Marx 
and Engels and, later, Lenin and Stalin pointed out the weak sides 
of these mass movements. The peasant movements were imorganized 
and spontaneous. Their weakness lay in the fact that their revolu
tionary forces acted isolatedly and were not united — a circumstance 
which permitted the government troops to crush each uprising as it 
occurred. 

Lenin and Stalin, in pointing out the weakness of the peasant 
wars, showed that the peasants could not win without the help and 
leadership of the proletariat. They emphasized the fact that the lead
ers of the peasant uprisings in Russia were supporters of the 
tsar; they opposed the landlords but were in favour of a *%ood 
tsar." 

Stalin has called the peasant wars ^devolutions of the serf 
peasants" and has emphasized their revolutionary character 
inasmuch as the peasant wars were directed against feudalism and 
serfdom. 

=== Life and Culture in the 17th Century Russia ===

==== Education ====
The war against foreign intervention (1604-1618), the country’s 
ruined economy (1618-1648) and the Baltic blockade impeded Russia’s 
’cultural development. Even among the great feudal nobility there were 
many uneducated and illiterate people. There were no properly organized schools* Only in Moscow was there a higher theological school ('^Academy'*). Reading and writing were taught by scribes at the 
churches or in the homes of wealthy people. The whole business of 
education was a matter of memorizing several church books. The 
first printed textbooks appeared in the 17th century. The pupils 
repeated the lesson alter their teacher in a singsong. This gave rise 
to the folk saying: "Their ABC’s they sing — ^the very rafters ring." 
For the slightest mistake the pupils were whipped with birch rods. The 
rod was even praised in song and verse. Literacy among women was a 
rare thing. 

===== Life of the Nobles and Merchants in the 17th Century =====
The women 
in the homes of the boyars, nobles and merchants lived in complete seclu
sion until they married. They durst not show themselves to strangers, nor 
look at them. They spent the whole day either at embroidery work or at 
prayer. Their marriages were arranged for them by their parents. The 
bridegroom and bride generally did not see each other imtil the wed
ding day, No better was the position of the married woman. After mar
riage she became the obedient slave of her husband and could do nothing 
without his permission. 
The dress of the well-to-do was heavy and uncoflifortahle. The outer garment reached below the knees and the sleeves almost touched the 
ground, for which reason they were gathered up on the arms in numerous 
folds. It was diflGlcult to walk and work in such clothing. Sometimes the 
rich people, for the sake of ostentation, dressed themselves in e3i)en
sive fur coats when receiving guests. 

Clothes worn on festive occasions were made of costly woolen cloth 
or Eastern silks, resplendent with precious stones, pearls and huge gold 
and silver buttons. The aristocracy wore very tall fur hats, slightly 
widening at the top. They were so heavy that it was diflBicult to turn one ’s 
head in them. On ceremonious occasions a boyar would even wear three 
headgear— a fiat skull-cap, a hood, and his tall fur hat. 

The hair was cut short. Beards were an object of special care. A man 
who could not grow a good beard was considered capable of doing evil 
deeds. The shaving of beards was punished as a sinful act.

===== Cultural Influence of Western Europe =====
A factor that largely 
contributed to the cultural development of the Eussian state in the 
17th century was the growing contact with the more cultured countries of the West. Greeks, Englishmen, Germans, Dutchmen, 
Frenchmen, and Poles appeared 
in Moscow as well as in other 
large cities. Some came for a 
short time for pin poses of trade; 
others remained to live in 
the Russian cities. The govern
ment of Muscovy stimulated 
the migration of educated peo
ple, inviting military specialists, 
doctors, painters, and various 
artificers into its service. These 
foreigners were by no means all 
useiul people. Many of them 
proved to be impostors who had 
come toRnssia merely for person
al profit or espionage. Others 
served conscientiously and gave 
the Russian people the benefit 
of their knowledge. 

A settlement inhabited by 
foreigners sprang up in Moscow 
as tar back as the end of the 16th century. Later it came to be called the 
"German Settlement," In the middle of the 17th century it was trans
ferred to the \auza River, not far from the village of Preobrazhenskoye. 
Russians who visited the German Settlement were to a certain extent 
able to familiarize themselves with Emopean culture. Russians also 
began to make more frequent trips abioad during the 17th century. 
The nobles of Muscovy often went to England, Germany, France, 
Tuikey and other Euiopean and Eastern countnes as members of the 
Russian embassies. Attempts were also made by Russian tradesmen 
to take their merchandise to European cities, but these attempts 
met with failure since foreign merchants, fearing competition, did 
not permit Russian trade in their lands. 

This acquaintance with foreign culture, especially with that of 
Western Europe, resulted in the gradual penetration of elements of 
that culture into the life of the well-to-do classes of the Russian popu
lation — ^th© boyars and the merchants. Articles of foreign 
origin, such as "amusing" (f.e., illustrated) books, paintings, maps, 
musical instruments, utensils, ornaments, etc., appeared in the homes 
of the rich. 

Western European influence also affected the intellectual interests 
of the educated people of Russian society The boyar Ordin-Nashchokin, 
influential in the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich, ardently advocated the reorganization of the state administration of Russia according to the best European models. The Ukraine also exerted considerable 
cultural influence, which became especially great after its incorpo
ration into the Russian state. Kiev icon-painters, engravers, and 
other masters came to Moscow to work. The boyars invited Ukrainian 
teachers and tutors to their homes. Simeon Polotski, an educated 
Byelorussian monk, was a teacher in the family of Tsar Alexei Mi
khailovich. He furthermore composed comedies, wrote verse and 
taught the Muscovites rhetorical art. His rhymed psalter is well 
known. 

A large number of foreign works on history, the science of warfare, 
medicine, astronomy, mathematics, geography, natural science and 
other sciences were translated into Russian in the 17th century. The 
Russian reading public became acquainted with secular literature 
through the translations of novels dealing with chivalry and knight
errantry, and other stories. Russian imitations appeared, followed 
by original works descriptive of life among the nobles and the mer
chants. A considerable number of short satirical tales were written 
in the second half of the 17th century lampooning ecclesiastical drunk
ards, covetous judges, corrupt under-clerks, knavish nobles, etc. 
This literature strove to portray the truth of life, and was mundane 
and realistic. 

An approach to realism was also noticeable in the development 
of Russian painting. Artists tried to depict life with greater exaotn'ess 
and truth. In portrait painting there was a striving to obtain a lifelike 
effect. The gifted Moscow artist, Simon Ushakov, compared art to a 
mirror, which reflects the real world as it sees it. This is what Ushakov 
wanted to see in painting too. 

In the 17th century the Moscow court aristocracy was first intro
duced to the world of drama. Qotfried Gregory, a pastor from the 
German Settlement, who lived during the reign of Tsar Alexei Mi
khailovich, formed a "comedy troupe" of Russian students and German 
actors, which presented plays on historical themes. Later a special 
building was put up for the theatre which also presented plays written 
by Russians. During the performance the tsar sat on a special bench 
in front of the stage, while the invited boyars stood up. The tsaritsa 
watched the performance from a screened loge. 

Cultural development in the 17th century affected only the upper 
sections of the ruling class. The people remained in complete ignorance 
and darkness. The peasants lived in dirty huts which had no chimneys. 
The hearth was laid in the middle of the hut and the only outlet for 
the smoke was a small window, the only one in the house. The walls 
and ceiling were covered with soot. The priests and quack doctors played 
on the popular ignorance and treated the people for their ailments 
by means of exorcisms, "holy water" and various herbs. Mortality was therefore very high, especially among children. During an epidemic entire cities and districts would be wiped out. 

But in spite of the people’s dire poverty and state of serfdom^ 
folk art did not die out. Pilgrims and other people chanted hyliny 
(folk song-poems) and historical songs which told of outstanding 
events, of the struggle to throw off the Tatar yoke, and of the popular 
uprisings. The keen observation and native wit of the Russians were 
expressed in numerous proverbs and adages. Jugglers and buffoons 
presented short satirical skits in the public squares, in which they 
frequently ridiculed the priests and the boyars. 

The church did its utmost at that time to suppress the art of the 
people. It forbade music and street performances. The patriarch Nikon 
even ordered all national musical instruments to be collected and burnt. 

==== Moscow, the Capital ====
In the 17th century Moscow was a big and populous city. For
eigners compared it with the largest cities of Western Europe. 

The Kremlin, the administrative centre of the capital, occupied 
the centre of Moscow. The tsar’s palace, consisting of numerous build
ings, as well as outhouses such as granaries, cellars, barns, stables, 
etc., was situated within the Kremlin. A large stone building housing 
the government offices faced Ivanovskaya Square, not far from the 
palace. The various decrees of the tsar and the boyars were announced 
to the assembled people from the steps of this building. Near the 
offices the clerks shouted out the royal ukases; here, too, convicted 
persons were publicly punished by whipping or scourging. This it 
was that gave rise to the popular saying: "To shout all over Ivanov
skaya." The residences of the boyars, the prelates and some of the rich 
merchants were also situated in the Kremlin. 

Moscow spread on all sides of the Kremlin. As the city grew, the 
estates of the princes and boyars surrounding it, their villages and 
settlements inhabited by craftsmen and serfs became part of the city. 
Many of Moscow’s streets and squares still bear the names of the 
meadows and villages that had once been within the city’s precincts. 
The site occupied by Kudrin&kaya Square (now called Square of the 
Uprising) was once the village of Kudrino. Polyanka (Field) Street , 
as its name implies, was once open country. The square facing the 
Kremlin came into existence at the end of the 15th century, taking 
the place of some buildings that had been destroyed by fire. IVIarket 
trade was carried on in the square which was also a place of public 
executions. In the middle of the 17th century the square came to be 
called Bed Square —probably because at that time it was the largest 
and most beautiful square in Moscow.

New fortress walls were built around Moscow several times. In the 
thirties of the 16th century the walls of Kitai Gorod were 
built to adjoin the Kjemlin walls. At the end of the 16th century a 
Russian craftsman by the name of Fyodor Kon, built the walls of 
Bely Qorod (White Town). During the reign of Boris Godunov the 
buildings outside Bely Gorod were surrounded by a wooden wall with 
high towers. The wooden wall was burnt down during the uprising 
against the Poles in the spring of 1611. A laige earthen rampart was 
then erected in its place. 

Kitai Gored was the trading centre of Moscow. Most of it was 
occupied by rows of small booths huddled closely together. Each row 
traded in one particular article, such as meat, fish, ironwares, cloth, 
silk, lace, etc. The biggest trading took place in the goatiniye dvory 
(merchant inns) where visiting foreign merchants put up, 

Bely Gorod was the residential quaiter of the rich nobles and 
merchants. The large boyars* residences resembled country manors. 
Their spacious granaries and storerooms contained supplies of food 
brought from the coimtryside. Hundreds of seifs, the household ser
vants of the boyar, lived in crowded outhouses. 

Craftsmen and tradespeople resided in special suburbs or settle
ments called slohody. There were settlements that belonged to the 
tsar, to individual boyars and to monasteries. Kadashevskaya Sloboda 
was inhabited by weavers who made linen for the palace; Kuznetsfcaya Sloboda (Smiths" Subujb) by smiths; Bronnaya (Armour Suburb) by craftsmen who made head-pieces and coats of mail, and so on. 
The homes of the poor in no way differed from the huts in the rural 
districts. In some places the houses stood in dense clusters; in others 
there were intervening commons or grassland enclosures used for 
pasturage. The streets v.ore so narrow and crooked that two carts fre
quently were unable to x^ass each other. On some streets houses often 
jutted forward in such a way that they blocked the thoroughfare. 

Moscow, like other European capitals, was a muddy city. Only 
a few streets were paved with round logs laid down iu a row. The 
crowded state of the wooden buildings facilitated the rapid spread 
of fires, and Moscow was frequently burnt to the ground in a matter 
of hours. 

Side by side with this, however, there were masterpieces of ancient 
Russian architecture which charmed Russians and still more foreigners, 
such as the magnificent Kremlin walls and towers, the belfry of Ivan 
the Great, numerous churches with tent -roof belfries, palaces, etc. 
Such was the capital of the Russian state in the 17th century. 

=== The Peoples of Siberia in the 17th Century ===

==== Eastern Siberia in the 17th Century ====

===== The Peoples of Eastern Siberia =====
In the 17th century the Russian 
state absorbed almost all of Eastern Siberia, from the Yenisei to the 
Sea of Okhotsk. This vast territory was inhabited by heterogeneous 
peoples in various stages of social and economic development. The 
land east of the Yenisei to the coast of the Sea of Okhotsk was occupied 
by tribes of the Paleo -Asiatic Evenki or Tmiguses, as the Russians 
called them. They lived in large clans which often came into bloody 
conflict with each other. In the winter the Evenki hunted in the Si
berian taiga; during the summer they went to the rivers for the fishing 
season. Portable tents covered with birch-bark in the summer and 
hides in the winter served as their homes. Domesticated deer were 
used for transportation purposes. The Evenki procured iron wares 
froin their neighbours, but they had few such objects. Some tribes 
wore defensive armour made of bone plates. They liked colourful 
clothing and bright, spai'kling ornaments, and tattooed their faces. 
The Evenki were a very warlike tribe. T'heir shamans, or wi 2 iard
priests, exercised great influence over them. The people believed that 
the shamans were able to invoke the spirits of the dead; on such occasions these sorcerers would dress theinselyes in special garments and execute savage dances to the heating of a "sacred" tambourine. 

At the mouth of the Amur lived the Paleo-Asiatics, the Nivkhi 
or Gilyaks. Their chief occupation was fishing. 

The peoples inhabiting Northeastern Siberia— the Oduly ('ruka
girs), Nymylans (Koryaks), Luoravetlans (Chukches), Itelmens (Kam
chadales) —still lived the life of barbarians. They were not familiar 
with iron and employed flint and bone instead. They used arrows 
with flint tips, and stone knives. Their first acquaintance with iron 
was made through the Russians, whom they called in their folklore 
"the iron men." 

The Upper Yenisei was inhabited since ancient times by the Turkic
Yenisei Kirghiz whom the Chinese called Khakasses. They have 
retained this name to the present day. The Kirghiz were a pastoral 
people who led a nomadic life in the steppes of the Yenisei. Their 
chieftains collected tribute in the form of furs from their forest-dwelling 
neighbours. Various hill tribes dwelt in the inaccessible gorges of the 
Altai Mountains. Some of these tribes were familiar with iron smelting 
and made weapons and other objects from iron. Their neighbours 
bought these objects or took them away by force as tribute. The Altai 
peoples were absorbed by the Oirots (a Mongol tribe), and their country 
came to be called Oirotia (now the Oirot Autonomous Region). 

In the centre of the territory occupied by the Evenki, along the 
middle reaches of the Lena River, lived the Turkic-Yakuts. According 
to a Yakut legend, this people came from the south, from the Trans
baikal region, and settled on the Lena River after a long and strenuous 
struggle against the Evenki. Yakut civilization in the 17th century 
was superior to that of its neighbours. The Yakuts engaged in cattle 
and horse breeding, which was facilitated by a profusion of excellent 
meadowlands along the middle reaches of the Lena, The Yakuts lived 
in timber huts warmed by fireplaces. They were familiar with the 
working of metals in a primitive way; their weapons (knives set in 
wooden handles), and especially their armour, were highly valued 
even by the Russians. In the 17th century the clan system among the 
Yakuts had begun to decline. Chieftains possessing large herds of 
cattle began to stand out from the mass of the tribe. They were served 
both by slaves and free Yakuts— poor people who had very litth, if 
any, cattle of their own. 

The territory of the Angara River, a tributary of the Yenisei, 
of Lake Baikal and the Upper Lena, was inhabited by Buryat-Mongol 
tribes. The chief pursuit of the Buryats was herding, but they also 
practised agriculture in a small way, even bartering barley and millet 
for furs and other wares. Hunting was a subsidiary occupation with 
them. The Buryat tribes were also ruled by chieftains. 

The Laurs and their kindred Manchiiiia tiibes lived along the 
Amur River, In the 17th century the Daurs were already a highly 
civilized people. They lived on the land in villages and engaged in 
agriculture, somng all kinds of cereals and growing different sorts of 
vegetables and fruit trees. They had a large number of cattle, and 
imported poultry from China. In addition to husbandry and livestock 
breeding the Daurs engaged to some extent in hunting fur-bearing 
animals, especially the sable, in which their land abounded. The rich 
Amur region attracted neighbouring Chinese feudal lords, who forced 
the inhabitants of this area to pay tribute to them in the form of sable 
skins. The Chinese taxgatherers, accompanied by Chinese merchants 
with their wares, came to the Amur every year. The Daurs obtained 
silk fabrics and metals from the Chinese, under whose influence they 
began to build houses with windows covered with thin sheets of paper 
(instead of glass) and dress themselves in the Chinese fashion. The 
Daurs had well-fortified cities. 

==== Conquest and Colonization of Eastern Siberia ====

===== Russian Penetration Eastward =====
Eastern Siberia was conquered 
by the Siberian military servitors, viz.^ the Cossacks and other military 
who served in Siberian towns and who set off on their own initiative, 
in small detachments, to conquer the "'troublesome lands.^*’ Besides 
collecting the royal tribute, they confiscated considerable amounts 
of fur for themselves and derived large profits from the sale of captives 
into slavery. They took the elders and chieftains of the conquered 
tribes as hostages, and built small wooden fortresses on the subjugated 
lands. The Siberian military servitors were abetted by the traders 
who came in increasing numbers year after year in quest of sable skins. 
In their pursuit of the sable, the hunters sometimes penetrated 
into the most distant corners of Siberia before the military people 
arrived there. Groups of Cossacks and hunters kept pushing further 
east, to unexplored lands. In this manner all of Eastern Siberia 
from the Yenisei to the Sea of Okhotsk was acquired within 
several decades. 

On the eastern shores of the Gulf of Ob was a land which the Russians called Mangazeya. From here, by going along the rivers and by 
portage, the traders made their way to the lower reaches of the Yenisei 
River (where now stands the city of Turukhansk). Despite the dangers 
of this long journey, the quest of rich fur prize drew large numbers 
of traders to Mangazeya every year. Under Tsar Boris Godunov a large 
military expedition was sent to Mangazeya, and after a determined 
struggle against the nomad Nentsi (Samoyedes), the Russians built 
a wooden fort here. Thus was seized the route to the Lower Yenisei. 
Somewhat later, the Russians penetrated from the middle region of the Ob to the middle of the Yenisei, where in 1619 they built the city of Yeniseisk, From here they began to subjugate the Evenki, Buryats, 
and other peoples of the Yenisei region. About ten years later the 
city of Krasnoyarsk was founded on the Yenisei Biver. Here the 
Kussian military servitors encountered serious resistance on the part 
of the Kirghiz. 

Moving along the Angara Biver, a right tributary of the Yenisei, 
the Russians from Yeniseisk reached the great Lake Baikal. In the 
middle of the 17th century, not far from the spot where the Angara 
flows out of the lake, the fortified wintering station of Irkutsk (the 
future city of Irkutsk) was established. The indigenous Buryat tribes 
of the Angara basin and Lake Baikal desperately resisted the invaders. 
The Buryats of Baikal trekked to Mongolia, There they fell into op
pressive bondage under the yoke of the Mongol feudal lords, and many 
of them preferred to go back and live under the rule of Muscovy. 

A very important stage in the history of the conquest of Eastern 
Siberia by the Russians was the opening of a route from the Yenisei 
to the Lena, Bumours of the immense wealth to be found in furs along 
the "great river" east of the Yenisei began to attract traders and 
military people at an early date. Crowds of fortune-hunters made a 
rush almost simultaneously from two directions, from Yeniseisk and 
from Mangazeya. They attacked the Yakuts living on the Lena, robbed 
them of their furs and cattle, and took their women and children into 
captivity. In 1632 the Yeniseisk military servitors created a fort on 
the Lena — ^Yakutsk. Shortly afterwards waywodes were sent to Ya
kutsk from Moscow. Groups of military men and traders then set out 
from Yakutsk to discover and conquer "distant," "unknown" lands. 
They made their way to the northeast, as far as the Arctic Ocean, 
reaching the land of the Oduly (Yukagirs), from whom they exacted 
tribute.

===== The Dezhnyov Expedition =====
In 1648 a group of Russian mer
chants and traders conceived the idea of exploring the Arctic coast 
east of the mouth of the Kolyma, in quest of walrus breeding grounds, 
walrus tusks being a valuable article of trade. The expedition was 
headed by the Cossack Semyon Dezhnyov, from Yakutsk. It sailed 
from the mouth of the Kolyma on seven vessels, moving close to the 
shore. The craft used by the daring navigators were a makeshift affair 
of roughly assembled boards and most of them were wrecked. However, 
the vessel in which Dezhnyov sailed was carried out far to the east 
by a storm, into the strait dividing Asia from America (Bering Strait). 
No one in Europe at the time knew that Asia was separated from 
America by a strait. Dezhnyov’s voyage solved this question. Today 
the extreme northeastern cape of Asia is called Cape Dezhnyov. 

While these discoveries were being made in the northeast exploration was in progress along the shores of the Sea of Okhotsk and the Amur. BVom the Aldan River, a tributaiy of the Lena, the military 
went as far as the shore of the Sea of Okhotsk, where they erected the 
fort of Okhotsk. The Okhotsk Evenki resisted for a long time but 
were finally compelled to submit to the force of firearms.

===== The Struggle for the Amur =====
Traders from the Amur brought 
news of the wealth of the land of the Daurs (the Amur region), and 
of the large number of sables to be found there. In 1643 the Yakutsk 
wajnvode fitted out a military expedition to the Amur under the 
command of Vasili Poyarkov. The latter succeeded in reaching the 
Zeya River, a tributary of the Amur, where he established a small 
settlement. However, before long his detachment ran short of food. 
At first they ate pine bark and roots, then when the snow melted, grass, 
and finally reached such an extremity that they were forced to eat 
dead bodies. Poyarkov barely managed to repel the attacks of the 
Daurs against his settlement. In the spring he built some vessels 
and sailed along the Zeya and down the Amur, with the survivors 
of his crew. Poyarkov wintered at the mouth of the Amur and col
lected tribute from the Nivkhi (Gilyaks). Early the following summer 
the detachment under Poyarkov sailed into the open sea and coasted 
northwards. Only in July 1646, exactly three years after the expe
dition had started out, and after enduring the greatest privations, 
the survivors reached Yakutsk. 

In spite of all the hardships that attended expeditions to the 
Amur, the wealth of this region continued to attract enterprising men. 
In 1649 a trader by the name of Yerofei Khabarov assembled volun
teers at his own expense, supplied them with weapons and food, and 
set out with them to conquer the "Amur peoples." For three years 
Khabarov and his troops fought to get possession of the Amur provinces. 
He forced the population into submission, collected tribute and seized 
captives. The Chinese, who imtil then had collected tribute from the 
people of the Amur region, were reluctant to yield their booty to the 
Russians. A large Chinese army unexpectedly attacked the Kha
barov settlement on the Amur. In spite of their inferior numbers, 
the Russians repulsed the attack and compelled the Chinese to retreat. 
But the position of Khabarov ’s detachment became increasingly 
difficult; it was impossible to obtain food anywhere, and Khabarov 
himself had been recalled to Moscow. Those of his detachment that 
remained were annihilated by the Chinese. 

Muscovy did not relinquish the idea of annexing the Amur lands, 
but decided to act more cautiously. The Nerchinsk fort was founded 
on one of the northern tributaries of the Amur. Fifteen years after 
Khabarov ’s expedition the Cossacks established the small outpost 
of Albazin on the Amur itself. The Chinese emperor, desirous of dom
inating the Amur himself, demanded that this outpost be destroyed.

His demand not being acceded to, a large Chinese army equipped with guns besieged the stronghold and compelled the small garrison 
to evacuate it,* the outpost of Albazin was razed. A year later the 
Russians rebuilt Albazin and strongly fortified it. The Chinese be
sieged the fort again, but this time the garrison, in spite of the great 
disparity in numbers, successfully withstood the furious bombardment 
for almost a year. Peace negotiations put an end to the siege. In 1689 
peace was concluded in Nerchinsk. According to the terms of the 
treaty the boundaries established between Russian and Chinese pos
sessions followed the Argun River and the Stanovoi and Yablonovoi 
mountain ranges; in this way the Amur and its adjoining lands were 
seized by China. Albazin was destroyed again.

===== Revolt of the Indigenous Population of Siberia =====
Within a 
very brief space of time the Russian state took possession of a vast 
territory stretching from the Urals to the Sea of Okhotsk. The indi
genes were forced to pay hea-vy tribute. Revolts against the tsarist 
rule therefore frequently broke out in Siberia. The Yakuts rebelled 
on several occasions; once they almost succeeded in destroying Yakutsk. 
The Buryats and the Okhotsk Evenki fought long and persistently 
against the tsarist conquerors. A big uprising took place in Western 
Siberia during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich. These rebellions 
were suppressed. The disunited Siberian peoples were powerless in 
their struggle against the centralized Russian state.

===== Colonization of Siberia =====
Despite its remoteness, Russians began 
to settle in Siberia in the 17th century. The government sent parties 
of people to Siberia for military service and other purposes. Very soon 
the government started the practice of sending convicts to Siberia, 
as well as the poor who rebelled against the boyars and the nobles. 
On the other hand, peasants who found life hard to endure under the 
landlord oppression and tsarist rule migrated of their own accord in 
order to escape from hunger and persecution in their native land, 
and went to the Urals in the hope of finding a better life there. 

The government had to maintain a large number of Cossacks and 
other military people in the Siberian towns and settlements. To provide 
them with food it was necessary to introduce agriculture into Siberia. 
The peasants were given land in Siberia and loans in the form of money 
and seed. In return for this they tilled a definite area "for the sovereign" 
and delivered about half of their crop to the state every year. The 
only difference between the position of the peasants in Siberia and the 
serfs of European Russia was that the former worked for a feudal 
state instead of private landlords. Many Russians came to Siberia 
to follow trade and various other pursuits. A large number of them 
remained in Siberia, established their own farms or entered the mili
tary service. By the end of the 17th century Western Siberia was 
studded with Russian settlements and villages.

Russian colonization stimulated the development of Siberia’s 
productive forces. In some places agriculture made great strides. 
By the end of the 17th century the southern districts of Western 
Siberia were devoted entirely to agriculture and, according to the 
descriptions of travellers, they represented a densely populated terri
tory with good ploughland. Russian colonists contributed greatly to 
the discovery and exploration of Northern Asia. Siberia’s natural 
resources, its iron ore and salt mines, began to be exploited. At the 
end of the 17th century Semyon Remezov of the Siberian military 
even compiled a geographical atlas of Siberia. The accounts of Russian 
travellers and their maps were frequently cited by Western European 
geographers in their scientific works on Asia. 

The Russian population of Siberia as well as the natives suffered 
keenly from the persecution and extortions of the tsarist waywodes and 
from the heavy burdens imposed on them by the state. The Russians 
frequently rebelled against the administration, the natives often joining 
them in their struggle against the common enemy. 

The conquest of Siberia was of tremendous significance to the 
Russian state. Eurs were obtained from Siberia for trade with Western 
Europe, China and Persia. Purs were also a source of revenue for nation
al defence and for the payment of the nobles’ salaries. 

=== Transcaucasia and Central Asia in the 16th and 17th Centuries ===

==== Transcaucasia in the 16th and 17th Centuries ====
It took Transcaucasia a long time to recover from the devastation 
wrought by the Tatar invasion. Agriculture and trade had fallen into 
decay. The economic ties among the separate regions had been severed. 
The feudal disunity of the country became greater. 

At the end of the 15th century Georgia was broken up into the king
doms of Karthlia (the capital of which was Tiflis), Kakhetia and 
Imeretia, and the principalities of Mingrelia, Meshkhetia, Guria, 
Svanetia and Abkhazia. Each of these small states consisted, in its turn, 
of a large number of still smaller feudal domains. Split up and ren
dered impotent by intestine warfare, Georgia was nnable to offer 
effective resistance to outside enemies. Trancaucasia had two power
ful empires on its borders—Turkey and Persia. In the 16th century 
a fierce struggle broke out between them for possession of Transcauca
sia, which was ravaged by both countries. The Turko-Persian yoke lay heavily upon Transcaucasia and the Black Sea region. Azerbaijan was seized by the Persians in the beginning of the 16th century. 
It then alternately became the prey of the Turks and of the Persians, 
which had a disastrous effect upon the population. In 1655 
Turkey and Persia concluded an agreement for the mutual division 
of Georgia. Western Georgia (Imeretia) went to Turkey, and 
Eastern Georgia (Karthlia and Kakhetia) to Persia. The Georgian 
kingdom and principalities thus became vassals of their neighbour states. 

In an endeavour to re-establish their independence, the Kakhetian 
kings appealed for help to the Muscovy tsars. In 1586 an agreement was 
concluded between Muscovy and Kakhetia, by which the Kakhetian 
rulers agreed to become the vassals of Muscovy. However, the Russian state was too far away to render military aid to its allies. 
The struggle between Turkey and Persia in Transcaucasia continued. 
In 1614 Kakhetia fell a prey to Persian invasion. The land was ravaged 
with unprecedented savagery. Over 160,000 Georgians were transport
ed to Persia. The ruler of Kakhetia, Teimuraz, was again compelled 
to appeal to Moscow, where Mikhail Fyodorovich reigned at the time. 
But Russia did not help Georgia. During the reign of Alexei Mikhailo
vich, Teimuraz himself went to Moscow to try to secure aid. He was 
received with great honour, but Georgia did not receive any assistance 
this time either, as Russia was waging a difficult war against Turkey 
and Poland for the Ukraine. Thus as far back as the 17th century Geor
gia chose the right road of union with Russia. 

Turkish and Persian invasions reduced Transcaucasia to utter ruin. 
The once flourishing cities of Transcaucasia, Tbilisi and Kutaisi, 
were desolate. The peasantry particularly were grievously affected. 
In order to retain their possessions, Georgian and Armenian land
owners embraced the Mohammedan faith, thereby ensuring for 
themselves the support of the Turkish and Persian feudal lords. 
The peasants were utterly landless and were converted into so-called 
"purchased serfs." The Elarthlian King Rostom, a henchman of the 
Persian shah, in the middle of the 17th century confirmed that the peas
ants had no right to leave the lands of their lords. Only the dauntless 
mountaineers, the Khevssury and certain communities of free Svanetia 
were able to defend their independence. 

The feudal lords strove to subjugate the mountain communities 
which still retained their liberty. Thus the Georgian, Armenian and 
Azerbaijan peasants suffered from a double yoke— that of local and of 
foreign feudal lords. 

==== Central Asia in the 16th and 17th Centuries ====
Two large Uzbek states were formed in Central Asia in the beginning 
of the 16th century: Bokhara and Khiva. Their population consisted of Uzbeks, Tajiks and Turkomans. The Uzbeks for the most part were a nomadic pastoral race, but some of them settled on the land. The 
Turkomans were nomads and roamed with their herds of cattle between 
the Caspian Sea and the Amu Darya River. The chief occupation of the 
Tajiks was agriculture, which thrived particularly in the fertile, 
irrigated districts. In the towns the Tajiks engaged in trading and the 
crafts. At the end of the 16th century the Karakalpaki (Turki), who had 
formerly roamed north of the Aral Sea, made their appearance on the 
lower reaches of the Syr Darya River. 

The descendants of the Uzbek conqueror Sheibtoi established them
selves in the Bokhara khanate. An independent dynasty of Uzbek khans 
ruled separately in Khiva. Both states were divided into a large number 
of small principalities ruled by the relatives of the khan.The ruling group 
was the tribal nobility, the begs (landlords), who gradually appropriated 
vast demesnes. 

The Bokhara state grew very strong at the end of the 16th century 
during the reign of Abdula Khan, who exterminated nearly all his rela
tives and annexed their lands to his domains. In his fight for suprem
acy, Abdula Khan enjoyed the support of the Mohammedan clergy. 
At the end of the 16th century the dynasty of the Sheibanids came to an 
end. Under the new dynasty the power passed into the hands of the 
feudal lords, the Uzbek begs who had formerly represented the tribal 
nobility and had been the khan^s satraps but who had now become 
independent feudal rulers. The territory of Bokhara, as that of Klhiva, 
broke up into small, independent domains. 

The increasing feudal oppression led to frequent popular revolts. 

The big Central Asiatic cities (Bokhara, Samarkand, Khiva and 
others) had a large population of craftsmen and tradespeople in the 17th 
century. Caravan trade connected these cities with the markets of 
Russia, China, India and Persia, The cities, especially Samarkand, 
acquired a number of beautiful structures. In the 16th and 17th centu
ries an Uzbek nationality was formed and an Uzbek culture, art and 
literature were created. Persian and Tajik literature exercised a great 
influence on Uzbek literature. Poets at the court of the Bokhara khan 
sang of successful campaigns and military prowess. 

Economic ties between Central Asia and the Russian state grew 
stronger in the 17th century. Cotton and silk fabrics, raw silk and jewelry 
were exported from Central Aisia to Russia via Astrakhan. Central Asia 
imported from Russia furs, walrus tusks, and articles of wood and metal. 

=== Important Dates in the History of the U.S.S.R. (From Ancient Times until the End of the 17th Century) ===
* '''8th century B.C.'''
** The Urartu kingdom at its zenith 
* '''8th—3rd century B.C.'''
** Domination of the Scythians in the Black Sea steppes 
* '''7th century B.C.'''
** Rise of Greek colonies on the Black Sea
* '''2nd century B.C.'''
** Revolt of slaves in the kingdom of Bosporus
* '''End of 4th century of our era'''
** Invasion of Huns 
* '''6th—8th century of our era'''
** Turkic khanate 
* '''7th century of our era'''
** Conquest of Central Asia and Transcaucasia by the Arabs 
* '''8th century of our era'''
** Formation of the Khazar state 
* '''End of 8th century of our era'''
** Mokanna revolt against Arabs in Central Asia 
* '''9th century of our era'''
** Break-up of the Arab caliphate 
* '''Second half of 9th century'''
** Formation of the Samanid kingdom 
* '''860'''
** Campaign of Rūs against Constantinople 
* '''911'''
** Treaty of Oleg with the Greeks 
* '''941'''
** Campaign of Igor against Byzantium 
* '''945'''
** Igor’s agreement with the Greeks 
* '''967—971'''
** War between Svyatoslav and the Byzantine emperor 
* '''988'''
** Agreement between Vladimir Svyatoslavich and Byzantium, providing for adoption of Christianity by Kiev Rūs 
* '''1015'''
** Death of Vladimir Svyatoslavich 
* '''1019—1054'''
** Reign of Yaroslav the Wise 
* '''1068'''
** Uprising in Kiev 
* '''1089—1125'''
** Reign of David the Builder in Georgia 
* '''1113'''
** Uprising in Kiev 
* '''1113—1125'''
** Reign of Vladimir Monomachus 
* '''1122'''
** Liberation of Tiflis from the power of the Seljuks 
* '''1136'''
** Uprising in Novgorod 
* '''1147'''
** First mention of Moscow 
* '''1157—1174'''
** Reign of Andrei Bogolyubski 
* '''1169'''
** Taking of Kiev by Andrei Bogolyubski's troops 
* '''1176-1212'''
** Reign of Vsevolod (the "Large Nest") 
* '''1184-1213'''
** Reign of Tamara in Georgia 
* '''1185'''
** Battle between Igor Svyatoslavich and the Polovtsi 
* '''1202'''
** Founding of Livonian Order of Knights of the Sword 
* '''1206'''
** Temuchin proclaimed Genghis Khan 
* '''1216'''
** The Battle of Lipitsa 
* '''1223'''
** Battle on the Kalka River 
* '''1227'''
** Death of Genghis Khan 
* '''1237'''
** Invasion of Northeastern Rūs by Batu 
* '''1237'''
** Merging of the Livonian Order and the Teutonic Order 
* '''1238'''
** Uprising of Tarab in Samarkand 
* '''1240'''
** Victory of Alexander Yaroslavich over the Swedes on the Neva River 
* '''1242'''
** Defeat of the German knights on Lake Chudskoye (Lake Peipus) by Prince Alexander Yaroslavich (Nevsky). (The Battle on the Ice.) 
* '''1255'''
** Daniel of Galich proclaimed king 
* '''1316—1341'''
** Reign of Gedymin in Lithuania 
* '''1325—1341'''
** Reign of Ivan Danilovich Kalita in Moscow 
* '''1328'''
** Ivan Kalita—Grand Prince of Vladimir 
* '''1359—1389'''
** Reign of Dimitry Ivanovich (Donskoi) 
* '''1370—1405'''
** Rule of Timur 
* '''1377—1392'''
** Reign of Jagiello in Lithuania 
* '''1380'''
** The Battle of Kulikovo 
* '''1385'''
** Union of Lithuania and Poland 
* '''1389—1425'''
** Reign of Grand Prince Vasili Dimitrievich 
* '''1392—1430'''
** Reign of Grand Duke Witowt in Lithuania 
* '''1410'''
** The Battle of Grünewald 
* '''1425—1462'''
** Reign of Grand Prince Vasili Vasilievich the Blind 
* '''1437'''
** Founding of the Kazan khanate 
* '''Middle of the 15th century'''
** Formation of the Kazakh Horde 
* '''1462—1505'''
** Reign of Grand Prince Ivan III 
* '''1475'''
** Conquest of the Crimea by the Turks 
* '''1478'''
** Novgorod annexed to the Russian state 
* '''1479—1515'''
** Rule of Mengli Girai 
* '''1480'''
** Liberation of the Russian people from the Tatar yoke. 
* '''1485'''
** Tver annexed to the Russian state 
* '''1497'''
** Ivan III’s "Code of Laws" 
* '''1502'''
** Remnants of the Golden Horde destroyed by the Crimean Tatars 
* '''1503'''
** Chernigov-Seversk annexed to the Russian state 
* '''1505—1533'''
** Reign of Grand Prince Vasili III
* '''1510'''
** Pskov annexed to Russian state 
* '''1514'''
** Smolensk annexed to Russian state 
* '''1533—1584'''
** Reign of Ivan IV (Grozny), Took the title of tsar in 1547 
* '''1547'''
** Uprising in Moscow 
* '''1550'''
** "Code of Laws" of Ivan IV 
* '''1552'''
** Taking of Kazan 
* '''1553'''
** Discovery of the northern sea passage to Russia by the English 
* '''1556'''
** Annexation of Astrakhan 
* '''1558—1583'''
** Livonian war 
* '''1564'''
** Publication of first Russian book, printed by Ivan Fyodorov in Moscow 
* '''1565—1572'''
** ''Oprichnina''
* '''1569'''
** Union of Poland and Lithuania. Lublin Union 
* '''1581'''
** Beginning of Yermak's expedition to Siberia 
* '''1581'''
** Peasants’ right to leave on St. George’s Day repealed 
* '''1584—1598'''
** Reign of Fyodor Ivanovich 
* '''1586'''
** Vassal dependence of Kakhetia on Moscow 
* '''1598—1605'''
** Reign of Boris Fyodorovich Godunov 
* '''1605—1606'''
** Reign of False Dimitry I 
* '''1606—1610'''
** Reign of Vasili Ivanovich Shuiski 
* '''1606—1607'''
** Peasant uprising led by Ivan Bolotnikov 
* '''1612'''
** Liberation of Moscow by popular levy of Minin and Pozharski 
* '''1613—1645'''
** Reign of Mikhail Fyodorovich Romanov 
* '''1614'''
** Devastation of Georgia by Persian Shah Abbas 
* '''1645—1676'''
** Reign of Alexei Mikhailovich 
* '''1648—1650'''
** City insurrections in Russia 
* '''1648'''
** Expedition of Semyon Dezhnyov 
* '''1648'''
** Beginning of popular uprising in the Ukraine (under leadership of Bogdan Khmelnitski) against Polish domination 
* '''1649'''
** ''Sobornoye Ulozheniye'' (Code of Laws) 
* '''1649'''
** Peace of Zborov 
* '''1654'''
** Decree of Pereyaslavl Rada on the union of Ukraine with Russia 
* '''1662'''
** Uprising in Moscow 
* '''1662'''
** Uprising in Bashkiria and Western Siberia 
* '''1667'''
** Andrusovo Truce between Russia and Poland 
* '''1667—1671'''
** Popular uprising under leadership of Stepan Razin