Editing Cybernetics

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'''Cybernetics''' is a wide-ranging field concerned with regulatory and purposive systems. The core concept of cybernetics is circular causality or feedback—where the observed outcomes of actions are taken as inputs for further action in ways that support the pursuit and maintenance of particular conditions, or their disruption. Cybernetics is named after an example of circular causality, that of steering a ship, where the helmsperson maintains a steady course in a changing environment by adjusting their steering in continual response to the effect it is observed as having. Other examples of circular causal feedback include: technological devices such as thermostats (where the action of a heater responds to measured changes in temperature, regulating the temperature of the room within a set range); biological examples such as the coordination of volitional movement through the nervous system; and processes of social interaction such as conversation. Cybernetics is concerned with feedback processes such as steering however they are embodied, including in ecological, technological, biological, cognitive, and social systems, and in the context of practical activities such as designing, learning, managing, conversation, and the practice of cybernetics itself. Cybernetics' transdisciplinary and "antidisciplinary" character has meant that it intersects with a number of other fields, leading to it having both wide influence and diverse interpretations.

Cybernetics has its origins in exchanges between numerous fields during the 1940's, including anthropology, mathematics, neuroscience, psychology, and engineering. Initial developments were consolidated through meetings such as the Macy Conferences and the Ratio Club. At its most prominent during the 1950s and 1960s, cybernetics is a precursor to fields such as computing, artificial intelligence, cognitive science, complexity science, and robotics amongst others. It is closely related to systems science, which was developed in parallel. Early focuses included purposeful behaviour, neural networks, heterarchy, information theory, and self-organising systems. As cybernetics developed, it became broader in scope to include work in domains such as design, family therapy, management and organisation, pedagogy, sociology, and the creative arts. At the same time, questions arising from circular causality have been explored in relation to the philosophy of science, ethics, and constructivist approaches, while cybernetics has also been associated with counter-cultural movements. Contemporary cybernetics thus varies widely in scope and focus, with cyberneticians variously adopting and combining technical, scientific, philosophical, creative, and critical approaches.

== Cybernetics in the soviet union ==
Cybernetics in the Soviet Union was initially considered a "pseudoscience" and "ideological weapon" of "imperialist reactionaries" (Soviet Philosophical Dictionary, 1954) and later criticised as a narrow form of cybernetics. In the mid to late 1950's [[Viktor Glushkov]] and others salvaged the reputation of the field. [[Soviet cybernetics]] incorporated much of what became known as computer science in the West.

The design of self-regulating control systems for a real-time [[planned economy]] was explored by economist [[Oskar Lange]], cyberneticist [[Viktor Glushkov]], and other Soviet cyberneticists during the 1960's.
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	Cybernetics in the Soviet Union was initially considered a "pseudoscience" and "ideological weapon" of "imperialist reactionaries" (Soviet Philosophical Dictionary, 1954) and later criticised as a narrow form of cybernetics. In the mid to late 1950's [[Viktor Glushkov]] and others salvaged the reputation of the field. [[Soviet cybernetics]] incorporated much of what became known as computer science in the West.		Cybernetics in the Soviet Union was initially considered a "pseudoscience" and "ideological weapon" of "imperialist reactionaries" (Soviet Philosophical Dictionary, 1954) and later criticised as a narrow form of cybernetics. In the mid to late 1950's [[Viktor Glushkov]] and others salvaged the reputation of the field. [[Soviet cybernetics]] incorporated much of what became known as computer science in the West.

	The design of self-regulating control systems for a real-time [[~~Planned ecomony\|~~planned economy]] was explored by economist [[Oskar Lange]], cyberneticist [[Viktor Glushkov]], and other Soviet cyberneticists during the 1960's.		The design of self-regulating control systems for a real-time [[planned economy]] was explored by economist [[Oskar Lange]], cyberneticist [[Viktor Glushkov]], and other Soviet cyberneticists during the 1960's.