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===Finland=== | ===Finland=== | ||
During the 1920s and possibly later, Italian [[Fascism]] enjoyed greater popularity in Finland than did its German counterpart, and the Fascist bourgeoisie marketed weapons to Finland. A significant number of Finnish officers joined the Italian training service since 1919 and in 1933 somebody invited two first-rank Finnish generals to study in the [[ | During the 1920s and possibly later, Italian [[Fascism]] enjoyed greater popularity in Finland than did its German counterpart, and the Fascist bourgeoisie marketed weapons to Finland. A significant number of Finnish officers joined the Italian training service since 1919 and in 1933 somebody invited two first-rank Finnish generals to study in the [[Kingdom of Italy]]. The Fascist head of state received Lieutenant-Colonel Arne Somersalo and other important Finnish anticommunists during this time. However, by the 1930s Italian Fascism was in competition with German Fascism for popularity. The former was usually more popular with elder anticommunist, whereas the latter with younger anticommunists. Italian Fascism’s popularity further dwindled with the reinvasion of Ethiopia in 1935, during which the Finnish government announced that it was ready to accept all of the League of Nations’ sanctions on the Kingdom of Italy if unanimous. Despite the reinvasion, many Finns still preserved their pro-Italian sentiment and cultural relations between Finland and the Kingdom of Italy developed even more assiduously until 1939.<ref name=Ferrarini>{{safesubst:citation|author=Fabio Ferrarini|title=‘Mediterraneo baltico’: Italian Fascist propaganda in Finland (1933–9)|journal=Modern Italy|publisher=Department of Historical Studies, University of Milan|year=2020|doi=10.1017/mit.2020.51}}</ref> | ||
At the end of the 1920s, Fascist ambassador Tamaro endorsed the anticommunist [[Lapua Movement]] and suggested to Dino Grandi that its leaders should receive training in Rome. The Italian Fascists secretly assisted the Lapua Movement in order to compete with both German and Polish influence in the Baltics. In July 1930, the Lapua Movement imitated the March on Rome with the so-called ‘Peasant March’ in Finland. Although the march itself was nonviolent, the one dozen thousand disciplined troops intimidated the people, and violence during the summer of 1930 drew widespread criticism of the Laupua Movement and gradual opposition from the Agrarian Party in particular. After a failed coup d’état in Mäntsälä in 1932, the Lapua Movement officially disolved, though it was effectively succeeded by the Finnish Patriotic People’s Movement (ILK). Nevertheless, the Italian foreign office in 1933 was still interested in the movement, and the Comitati d’Azione per l’Universalità di Roma (CAUR) network began working in Finland (coincidentally as the Fascist takeover in Germany and its activities were entrusted to the ILK).<ref name=Ferrarini/> | At the end of the 1920s, Fascist ambassador Tamaro endorsed the anticommunist [[Lapua Movement]] and suggested to Dino Grandi that its leaders should receive training in Rome. The Italian Fascists secretly assisted the Lapua Movement in order to compete with both German and Polish influence in the Baltics. In July 1930, the Lapua Movement imitated the March on Rome with the so-called ‘Peasant March’ in Finland. Although the march itself was nonviolent, the one dozen thousand disciplined troops intimidated the people, and violence during the summer of 1930 drew widespread criticism of the Laupua Movement and gradual opposition from the Agrarian Party in particular. After a failed coup d’état in Mäntsälä in 1932, the Lapua Movement officially disolved, though it was effectively succeeded by the Finnish Patriotic People’s Movement (ILK). Nevertheless, the Italian foreign office in 1933 was still interested in the movement, and the Comitati d’Azione per l’Universalità di Roma (CAUR) network began working in Finland (coincidentally as the Fascist takeover in Germany and its activities were entrusted to the ILK).<ref name=Ferrarini/> | ||
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===Japan=== | ===Japan=== | ||
Relations between Fascist Italy and [[ | Relations between Fascist Italy and [[Imperial Japan]] were, for the most part, cordial. During the 1920s, Shimoi Harukichi helped greatly popularize Fascism in Imperial Japan, and often acted as a mediator between the two fledgling empires, trying to bring them closer together.<ref>{{safesubst:citation|author=Reto Hofmann|chapter=1|title=The Fascist Effect: Japan and Italy, 1915–1952|title-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NO5IDwAAQBAJ|city=Ithaca and London|publisher=Cornell University Press|year=2015|pages=1–10|pageurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=NO5IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1|isbn=978-0-8014-5341-0}}</ref> Rome put some effort into promoting Italian culture and politics in Imperial Japan, and Benito Mussolini himself received Shimoi in 1926, who presented him with a set of samuari armor.<ref>{{safesubst:citation|author=Reto Hofmann|chapter=1|title=The Fascist Effect: Japan and Italy, 1915–1952|title-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NO5IDwAAQBAJ|city=Ithaca and London|publisher=Cornell University Press|year=2015|pages=25–8|pageurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=NO5IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA25|isbn=978-0-8014-5341-0}}</ref> In 1928, the Fascists gifted the Imperial town of Aizu Wakamatsu with a Roman column, where it remained until the Allied occupation.<ref>{{safesubst:citation|author=Reto Hofmann|chapter=1|title=The Fascist Effect: Japan and Italy, 1915–1952|title-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NO5IDwAAQBAJ|city=Ithaca and London|publisher=Cornell University Press|year=2015|pages=32–5|pageurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=NO5IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA32|isbn=978-0-8014-5341-0}}</ref> From 1928 to 1931, Mussolini was frequently and positively portrayed in Imperial plays, biographies, advertisements, and other Imperial media. <ref>{{safesubst:citation|author=Reto Hofmann|chapter=2|title=The Fascist Effect: Japan and Italy, 1915–1952|title-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NO5IDwAAQBAJ|city=Ithaca and London|publisher=Cornell University Press|year=2015|pages=38–62|pageurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=NO5IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA38|isbn=978-0-8014-5341-0}}</ref> | ||
By 1933, however, both German and Italian Fascism were in competition for popularity in Imperial Japan, with one regarded as more | By 1933, however, both German and Italian Fascism were in competition for popularity in Imperial Japan, with one regarded as more anticommunist than the other,<ref>{{safesubst:citation|author=Reto Hofmann|chapter=3|title=The Fascist Effect: Japan and Italy, 1915–1952|title-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NO5IDwAAQBAJ|city=Ithaca and London|publisher=Cornell University Press|year=2015|pages=63–88|pageurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=NO5IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA63|isbn=978-0-8014-5341-0}}</ref> and Italian Fascism’s popularity furthered dwindled with the reinvasion of Ethiopia in 1935, which even many of Mussolini’s Imperial admirers deplored. Four pilots in Osaka offered to volunteer on behalf of the Ethiopian army, and some anonymous Japanese sent insults and death threats to Rome’s ambassador in Tokyo.<ref>{{safesubst:citation|author=Reto Hofmann|chapter=4|title=The Fascist Effect: Japan and Italy, 1915–1952|title-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NO5IDwAAQBAJ|city=Ithaca and London|publisher=Cornell University Press|year=2015|pages=89–94|pageurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=NO5IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA89|isbn=978-0-8014-5341-0}}</ref> Others foresaw some positive effects of the reinvasion; Kano Kizō hoped that it would reveal the [[League of Nations]] as a mere instrument of British foreign policy,<ref>{{safesubst:citation|author=Reto Hofmann|chapter=4|title=The Fascist Effect: Japan and Italy, 1915–1952|title-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NO5IDwAAQBAJ|city=Ithaca and London|publisher=Cornell University Press|year=2015|pages=94–97|pageurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=NO5IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA94|isbn=978-0-8014-5341-0}}</ref> and many Imperial businessmen anticipated far less competition from European ones.<ref>{{safesubst:citation|author=Reto Hofmann|chapter=4|title=The Fascist Effect: Japan and Italy, 1915–1952|title-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NO5IDwAAQBAJ|city=Ithaca and London|publisher=Cornell University Press|year=2015|pages=98–102|pageurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=NO5IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA98|isbn=978-0-8014-5341-0}}</ref> By 1937, the negative sentiments about the reinvasion had largely faded away from Japanese consciousness, and Fascist Italy was now a member of the Anticomintern Pact along with Imperial Japan.<ref>{{safesubst:citation|author=Reto Hofmann|chapter=5|title=The Fascist Effect: Japan and Italy, 1915–1952|title-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NO5IDwAAQBAJ|city=Ithaca and London|publisher=Cornell University Press|year=2015|pages=109–35|pageurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=NO5IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA109|isbn=978-0-8014-5341-0}}</ref> The Imperialists proved useful in seizing colonies from the newly defeated states of Europe. | ||
Nonetheless, despite some of the propaganda, there was very little direct collaboration between the Fascist and Imperial armies as there was among the Allies. The submarines I-503 and I-504, the only ships to serve in all three of the main Axis navies, are probably the only examples where European Fascists and Japanese Imperialists fought side-by-side on the same battlefield.<ref>{{safesubst:citation|author=Lawrence Paterson|chapter=eight|title=Hitler's Gray Wolves: U-Boats in the Indian Ocean|title-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WaavDQAAQBAJ|date=2017-05-16|publisher=Skyhorse|pages=360–4|pageurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=WaavDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT360|isbn=978-1-5107-1776-3}}</ref> <ref>{{safesubst:citation|author=Mark Felton|title=Command: Italy’s Far Eastern Army and Navy Forces|title-url=https://www.historynet.com/?p=13720061|date=2016-11-23|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161125142031/http://www.historynet.com/command-italys-far-eastern-army-and-navy-forces.htm|archivedate=2016-11-25}}</ref> | Nonetheless, despite some of the propaganda, there was very little direct collaboration between the Fascist and Imperial armies as there was among the Allies. The submarines I-503 and I-504, the only ships to serve in all three of the main Axis navies, are probably the only examples where European Fascists and Japanese Imperialists fought side-by-side on the same battlefield.<ref>{{safesubst:citation|author=Lawrence Paterson|chapter=eight|title=Hitler's Gray Wolves: U-Boats in the Indian Ocean|title-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WaavDQAAQBAJ|date=2017-05-16|publisher=Skyhorse|pages=360–4|pageurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=WaavDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT360|isbn=978-1-5107-1776-3}}</ref> <ref>{{safesubst:citation|author=Mark Felton|title=Command: Italy’s Far Eastern Army and Navy Forces|title-url=https://www.historynet.com/?p=13720061|date=2016-11-23|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161125142031/http://www.historynet.com/command-italys-far-eastern-army-and-navy-forces.htm|archivedate=2016-11-25}}</ref> | ||