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Between late 1929 and early 1930, over 600 of 729 large estates were confiscated and their livestock were given to poor peasants who owned no or very few cattle. By 1932 April, over 11,000 feudal estates had been redistributed. In 1930 December, Mongolia introduced a state monopoly on foreign trade, with that year capitalist exports and imports at only 26% and 9.8%, respectively. In 1931, the country redrew its administrative divisions.<ref name=":032" /><sup>:328–30</sup> | Between late 1929 and early 1930, over 600 of 729 large estates were confiscated and their livestock were given to poor peasants who owned no or very few cattle. By 1932 April, over 11,000 feudal estates had been redistributed. In 1930 December, Mongolia introduced a state monopoly on foreign trade, with that year capitalist exports and imports at only 26% and 9.8%, respectively. In 1931, the country redrew its administrative divisions.<ref name=":032" /><sup>:328–30</sup> | ||
==== Ultra-leftist | ==== Ultra-leftist errors (1930–1932) ==== | ||
After the redistribution of land and livestock, peasants formed basic [[Worker cooperative|cooperatives]]. The Eighth Party Congress in 1930 adopted a plan for full [[collectivization]] of agriculture. They rapidly formed communes that were poorly organized and lacked labor discipline, leading the country to lose 32% of its 23.5 million livestock by 1932. Extreme anti-religious policies that targeted low-ranking clergy in addition to the nobility, leading to a Lamaist rebellion in western Mongolia that was defeated in 1932. The Central Committee held a meeting in 1932 and purged [[Zolbingiin Shijee|Shijee]], [[Ölziitiin Badrakh|Badrakh]], and other [[Ultra-leftism|ultra-leftists]].<ref name=":032" /><sup>:330–3</sup> | After the redistribution of land and livestock, peasants formed basic [[Worker cooperative|cooperatives]]. The Eighth Party Congress in 1930 adopted a plan for full [[collectivization]] of agriculture. They rapidly formed communes that were poorly organized and lacked labor discipline, leading the country to lose 32% of its 23.5 million livestock by 1932. Extreme anti-religious policies that targeted low-ranking clergy in addition to the nobility, leading to a Lamaist rebellion in western Mongolia that was defeated in 1932. The Central Committee held a meeting in 1932 and purged [[Zolbingiin Shijee|Shijee]], [[Ölziitiin Badrakh|Badrakh]], and other [[Ultra-leftism|ultra-leftists]].<ref name=":032" /><sup>:330–3</sup> | ||
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==== Three-Year Plan (1958–1960) ==== | ==== Three-Year Plan (1958–1960) ==== | ||
Between 1958 and 1960, Mongolia began growing grain in 300,000 hectares of previously uncultivated land with the help of hundreds of specialists and 2,500 tractors from the USSR. Industrial output grew by 63.8%, reaching 7.4 times the 1940 level in 1960. By 1960, all ''sums'' (counties) were had direct telephone connections to provincial (''aimag'') centers. By 1960, proletarian families made up 36.1% of the country's population and 99.3% of farms were collectivized with a total of over five million ''bodo'' of livestock. 200,000 small farms had merged into 389 large collective farms with an average population of 1,161 humans and 13,000 ''bodo''. Peasants could privately own up to 10 or 15 livestock per person or 50 to 75 per family.<ref name=":033" /><sup>:412–29</sup> | Between 1958 and 1960, Mongolia began growing grain in 300,000 hectares of previously uncultivated land with the help of hundreds of specialists and 2,500 tractors from the USSR. Industrial output grew by 63.8%, reaching 7.4 times the 1940 level in 1960. By 1960, all ''sums'' (counties) were had direct telephone connections to provincial (''aimag'') centers. By 1960, proletarian families made up 36.1% of the country's population and 99.3% of farms were collectivized with a total of over five million ''bodo'' of livestock. 200,000 small farms had merged into 389 large collective farms with an average population of 1,161 humans and 13,000 ''bodo''. Peasants could privately own up to 10 or 15 livestock per person or 50 to 75 per family.<ref name=":033" /><sup>:412–29</sup> | ||
=== Sino-Soviet Split === | === Sino-Soviet Split === | ||
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=== Counterrevolution === | === Counterrevolution === | ||
In 1990, a [[Colour revolution|color revolution]] occurred and bourgeois parties were allowed to compete in elections. The Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party still won but eventually became a [[Social democracy|social democratic]] party by 1991.<ref>{{Citation|author=Dieter Nohlen, et al.|year=2001|title=Elections in Asia: A data handbook|chapter=|section=|page=490|quote=|pdf=|city=|publisher=|isbn=0199249598|doi=|lg=|mia=|title-url=|chapter-url=|trans-title=|trans-lang=}}</ref> The current constitution of [[Mongolia]] was adopted in 1992. After the adoption of the new constitution, the name of the state became "Mongolia. | In 1990, a [[Colour revolution|color revolution]] occurred and bourgeois parties were allowed to compete in elections. The Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party still won but eventually became a [[Social democracy|social democratic]] party by 1991.<ref>{{Citation|author=Dieter Nohlen, et al.|year=2001|title=Elections in Asia: A data handbook|chapter=|section=|page=490|quote=|pdf=|city=|publisher=|isbn=0199249598|doi=|lg=|mia=|title-url=|chapter-url=|trans-title=|trans-lang=}}</ref> The current constitution of [[Mongolia]] was adopted in 1992. After the adoption of the new constitution, the name of the state became "Mongolia".<ref>[https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Mongolia_2001.pdf?lang=en "Mongolia's Constitution of 1992 with Amendments through 2001."] Constitute Project. PDF generated 27 Apr 2022. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220508161003/https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Mongolia_2001.pdf?lang=en Archived] 2022-05-08.</ref> | ||
== Government == | == Government == | ||