The edit can be undone. Please check the comparison below to verify that this is what you want to do, and then publish the changes below to finish undoing the edit.
| Latest revision | Your text | ||
| Line 30: | Line 30: | ||
Between late 1929 and early 1930, over 600 of 729 large estates were confiscated and their livestock were given to poor peasants who owned no or very few cattle. By 1932 April, over 11,000 feudal estates had been redistributed. In 1930 December, Mongolia introduced a state monopoly on foreign trade, with that year capitalist exports and imports at only 26% and 9.8%, respectively. In 1931, the country redrew its administrative divisions.<ref name=":032" /><sup>:328–30</sup> | Between late 1929 and early 1930, over 600 of 729 large estates were confiscated and their livestock were given to poor peasants who owned no or very few cattle. By 1932 April, over 11,000 feudal estates had been redistributed. In 1930 December, Mongolia introduced a state monopoly on foreign trade, with that year capitalist exports and imports at only 26% and 9.8%, respectively. In 1931, the country redrew its administrative divisions.<ref name=":032" /><sup>:328–30</sup> | ||
==== Ultra-leftist | ==== Ultra-leftist errors (1930–1932) ==== | ||
After the redistribution of land and livestock, peasants formed basic [[Worker cooperative|cooperatives]]. The Eighth Party Congress in 1930 adopted a plan for full [[collectivization]] of agriculture. They rapidly formed communes that were poorly organized and lacked labor discipline, leading the country to lose 32% of its 23.5 million livestock by 1932. Extreme anti-religious policies that targeted low-ranking clergy in addition to the nobility, leading to a Lamaist rebellion in western Mongolia that was defeated in 1932. The Central Committee held a meeting in 1932 and purged [[Zolbingiin Shijee|Shijee]], [[Ölziitiin Badrakh|Badrakh]], and other [[Ultra-leftism|ultra-leftists]].<ref name=":032" /><sup>:330–3</sup> | After the redistribution of land and livestock, peasants formed basic [[Worker cooperative|cooperatives]]. The Eighth Party Congress in 1930 adopted a plan for full [[collectivization]] of agriculture. They rapidly formed communes that were poorly organized and lacked labor discipline, leading the country to lose 32% of its 23.5 million livestock by 1932. Extreme anti-religious policies that targeted low-ranking clergy in addition to the nobility, leading to a Lamaist rebellion in western Mongolia that was defeated in 1932. The Central Committee held a meeting in 1932 and purged [[Zolbingiin Shijee|Shijee]], [[Ölziitiin Badrakh|Badrakh]], and other [[Ultra-leftism|ultra-leftists]].<ref name=":032" /><sup>:330–3</sup> | ||
| Line 37: | Line 37: | ||
Monasteries were mostly empty by 1938 after the lower-ranking lamas abandoned them. Voluntary production associations reemerged, with about 90 active by 1940.<ref name=":032" /><sup>:351–3</sup> | Monasteries were mostly empty by 1938 after the lower-ranking lamas abandoned them. Voluntary production associations reemerged, with about 90 active by 1940.<ref name=":032" /><sup>:351–3</sup> | ||
===== Industry ===== | |||
In 1933, Mongolia opened a mechanical wool-washing factory in Hatkhyl. In 1934 March, Mongolia began industrial production of leather and wool products. The number of industrial [[Proletariat|workers]] in 1934 was ten times higher than in 1928. Low-ranking lamas joined the 33 producers' associations that had over 1,000 members. The government began building roads, with car travel increasing twelve times between 1932 and 1934. In 1934, 8,000 of the country's 11,000 industrial and office workers were [[Trade union|unionized]]. In 1937, the Central Committee began competition in state and cooperative enterprises, and the [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1922–1991)|USSR]] transferred full ownership of mixed enterprises to Mongolia.<ref name=":032" /><sup>:338–41</sup> | |||
===== Agriculture ===== | ===== Agriculture ===== | ||
The first ten mechanized haymaking stations opened in 1937 and increased to 24 stations in 1938. The area of hay harvested grew from 2,000 hectares in 1924 to 200,000 in 1940. By 1940, state farms and agricultural industry had over 160 tractors and 1,000 mowers.<ref name=":032" /><sup>:352–3</sup> | The first ten mechanized haymaking stations opened in 1937 and increased to 24 stations in 1938. The area of hay harvested grew from 2,000 hectares in 1924 to 200,000 in 1940. By 1940, state farms and agricultural industry had over 160 tractors and 1,000 mowers.<ref name=":032" /><sup>:352–3</sup> | ||
===== Livestock ===== | ===== Livestock ===== | ||
| Line 77: | Line 77: | ||
===== Collective farming ===== | ===== Collective farming ===== | ||
In 1953, the MPRP Central Committee held a meeting on the slow growth of the APAs. In 1954, the Council of Ministers recommended APAs to organize workers into teams and establish standards for output. Within one year, the area under APA production grew by 57% to reach 2,193 hectares with 979,500 livestock. In 1954, a new tax code was adopted that reduced overall taxes by 25%. Farms with up to 20 animals paid no taxes, while those with 50 to 100 paid 4 tögrög per camel, 3 per horse, 2 per head of cattle, 0.7 per sheep, and 0.25 per goat. The largest farms paid 8–10 per camel, 7–9 per horse, 6–8 per head of cattle, 1.75–2.3 per sheep, and 1.25–2 per goat. Small farms of 11 to 30 ''bodo''<ref group="note">A ''bodo'' is a measure of adult livestock equal to half a camel; one horse, cow or yak; or ten sheep or goats</ref> paid 20 kg of meat and 20 liters of milk per head of cattle and 800 grams of wool per sheep while the largest farms of over 260 | In 1953, the MPRP Central Committee held a meeting on the slow growth of the APAs. In 1954, the Council of Ministers recommended APAs to organize workers into teams and establish standards for output. Within one year, the area under APA production grew by 57% to reach 2,193 hectares with 979,500 livestock. In 1954, a new tax code was adopted that reduced overall taxes by 25%. Farms with up to 20 animals paid no taxes, while those with 50 to 100 paid 4 tögrög per camel, 3 per horse, 2 per head of cattle, 0.7 per sheep, and 0.25 per goat. The largest farms paid 8–10 per camel, 7–9 per horse, 6–8 per head of cattle, 1.75–2.3 per sheep, and 1.25–2 per goat. Small farms of 11 to 30 ''bodo''<ref group="note">A ''bodo'' is a measure of adult livestock equal to half a camel; one horse, cow or yak; or ten sheep or goats</ref> paid 20 kg of meat and 20 liters of milk per head of cattle and 800 grams of wool per sheep while the largest farms of over 260 bodo paid 45 kg of meat and 100 liters of milk per head of cattle and 1.5 kg of wool per sheep. APA farms, regardless of size, paid 24 kg of beef and 65 liters of milk per head of cattle; 4 kg of mutton and 1.2 kg of wool per sheep; 3 kg of meat, 200 g of wool, and 220 kg of down per goat; and 4.2 kg of wool per camel.<ref name=":033" /><sup>:420–4</sup> | ||
In 1955, the First Republican Congress renamed APAs to Agricultural Associations (AA). All members of farm families aged 16 or older had to work at least 75 days per year, and income was based on number of days worked. Depending on the region, AA members were able to personally own up to 100 or 150 livestock depending on the region. By 1957, collective farms had 5,223,600 ''bodo'' of livestock, 28 times higher than in 1952. 33% of peasant farms had joined AAs and 22.5% of Mongolia's cattle were collectively owned.<ref name=":033" /><sup>:425–6</sup> | In 1955, the First Republican Congress renamed APAs to Agricultural Associations (AA). All members of farm families aged 16 or older had to work at least 75 days per year, and income was based on number of days worked. Depending on the region, AA members were able to personally own up to 100 or 150 livestock depending on the region. By 1957, collective farms had 5,223,600 ''bodo'' of livestock, 28 times higher than in 1952. 33% of peasant farms had joined AAs and 22.5% of Mongolia's cattle were collectively owned.<ref name=":033" /><sup>:425–6</sup> | ||
==== Three-Year Plan (1958–1960) ==== | ==== Three-Year Plan (1958–1960) ==== | ||
Between 1958 and 1960, Mongolia began growing grain in 300,000 hectares of previously uncultivated land with the help of hundreds of specialists and 2,500 tractors from the USSR. Industrial output grew by 63.8%, reaching 7.4 times the 1940 level in 1960. By 1960, all ''sums'' (counties) were had direct telephone connections to provincial (''aimag'') centers. By 1960, proletarian families made up 36.1% of the country's population | Between 1958 and 1960, Mongolia began growing grain in 300,000 hectares of previously uncultivated land with the help of hundreds of specialists and 2,500 tractors from the USSR. Industrial output grew by 63.8%, reaching 7.4 times the 1940 level in 1960. By 1960, all ''sums'' (counties) were had direct telephone connections to provincial (''aimag'') centers. By 1960, proletarian families made up 36.1% of the country's population.<ref name=":033" /><sup>:412–7</sup> | ||
=== Sino-Soviet Split === | === Sino-Soviet Split === | ||
| Line 90: | Line 88: | ||
For the first decade after the [[Sino-Soviet split]], Mongolia was neutral. In January 1966, Mongolia and the Soviet Union signed a mutual defense treaty. In the first half of 1969, over 4,000 livestock shelters were built that were capable of protecting over 1.8 million animals from the cold.<ref>{{Citation|author=Robert A. Smith|year=1970|title=Mongolia: In the Soviet Camp|title-url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2642142?read-now=1&refreqid=excelsior%3A34573745e622e1d2daad8826b136471c&seq=1|page=25–29|publisher=University of California Press}}</ref> | For the first decade after the [[Sino-Soviet split]], Mongolia was neutral. In January 1966, Mongolia and the Soviet Union signed a mutual defense treaty. In the first half of 1969, over 4,000 livestock shelters were built that were capable of protecting over 1.8 million animals from the cold.<ref>{{Citation|author=Robert A. Smith|year=1970|title=Mongolia: In the Soviet Camp|title-url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2642142?read-now=1&refreqid=excelsior%3A34573745e622e1d2daad8826b136471c&seq=1|page=25–29|publisher=University of California Press}}</ref> | ||
=== Counterrevolution === | === Counterrevolution === | ||
In 1990, a [[Colour revolution|color revolution]] occurred and bourgeois parties were allowed to compete in elections. The Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party still won but eventually became a [[Social democracy|social democratic]] party by 1991.<ref>{{Citation|author=Dieter Nohlen, et al.|year=2001|title=Elections in Asia: A data handbook|chapter=|section=|page=490|quote=|pdf=|city=|publisher=|isbn=0199249598|doi=|lg=|mia=|title-url=|chapter-url=|trans-title=|trans-lang=}}</ref> The current constitution of [[Mongolia]] was adopted in 1992. After the adoption of the new constitution, the name of the state became "Mongolia. | In 1990, a [[Colour revolution|color revolution]] occurred and bourgeois parties were allowed to compete in elections. The Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party still won but eventually became a [[Social democracy|social democratic]] party by 1991.<ref>{{Citation|author=Dieter Nohlen, et al.|year=2001|title=Elections in Asia: A data handbook|chapter=|section=|page=490|quote=|pdf=|city=|publisher=|isbn=0199249598|doi=|lg=|mia=|title-url=|chapter-url=|trans-title=|trans-lang=}}</ref> The current constitution of [[Mongolia]] was adopted in 1992. After the adoption of the new constitution, the name of the state became "Mongolia".<ref>[https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Mongolia_2001.pdf?lang=en "Mongolia's Constitution of 1992 with Amendments through 2001."] Constitute Project. PDF generated 27 Apr 2022. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220508161003/https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Mongolia_2001.pdf?lang=en Archived] 2022-05-08.</ref> | ||
== Government == | == Government == | ||
| Line 120: | Line 104: | ||
In 1949, Mongolia introduced the secret ballot and replaced all indirect elections with direct ones.<ref name=":032" /><sup>:401</sup> | In 1949, Mongolia introduced the secret ballot and replaced all indirect elections with direct ones.<ref name=":032" /><sup>:401</sup> | ||
== Trade == | == Trade == | ||
Mongolia joined the [[Council for Mutual Economic Assistance]] in 1962 July. In addition to trading with other socialist countries, it traded with [[Arab Republic of Egypt|Egypt]], [[Republic of Finland|Finland]], [[French Republic|France]], [[Republic of India|India]], [[Japan]], [[Kingdom of Sweden|Sweden]], [[Swiss Confederation|Switzerland]], and the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland|UK]].<ref name=":033">{{Citation|author=A. A. Guber, et al.|year=1973|title=History of the Mongolian People's Republic|title-url=https://archive.org/details/HistoryOfTheMPR/page/n202/mode/1up|chapter=The Fight of the Mongolian People for the Victory of Socialism|page=}}</ref | Mongolia joined the [[Council for Mutual Economic Assistance]] in 1962 July. In addition to trading with other socialist countries, it traded with [[Arab Republic of Egypt|Egypt]], [[Republic of Finland|Finland]], [[French Republic|France]], [[Republic of India|India]], [[Japan]], [[Kingdom of Sweden|Sweden]], [[Swiss Confederation|Switzerland]], and the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland|UK]].<ref name=":033">{{Citation|author=A. A. Guber, et al.|year=1973|title=History of the Mongolian People's Republic|title-url=https://archive.org/details/HistoryOfTheMPR/page/n202/mode/1up|chapter=The Fight of the Mongolian People for the Victory of Socialism|page=}}</ref> | ||
== Education == | == Education == | ||