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Between late 1929 and early 1930, over 600 of 729 large estates were confiscated and their livestock were given to poor peasants who owned no or very few cattle. By 1932 April, over 11,000 feudal estates had been redistributed. In 1930 December, Mongolia introduced a state monopoly on foreign trade, with that year capitalist exports and imports at only 26% and 9.8%, respectively. In 1931, the country redrew its administrative divisions.<ref name=":032" /><sup>:328–30</sup> | Between late 1929 and early 1930, over 600 of 729 large estates were confiscated and their livestock were given to poor peasants who owned no or very few cattle. By 1932 April, over 11,000 feudal estates had been redistributed. In 1930 December, Mongolia introduced a state monopoly on foreign trade, with that year capitalist exports and imports at only 26% and 9.8%, respectively. In 1931, the country redrew its administrative divisions.<ref name=":032" /><sup>:328–30</sup> | ||
==== Ultra-leftist | ==== Ultra-leftist errors (1930–1932) ==== | ||
After the redistribution of land and livestock, peasants formed basic [[Worker cooperative|cooperatives]]. The Eighth Party Congress in 1930 adopted a plan for full [[collectivization]] of agriculture. They rapidly formed communes that were poorly organized and lacked labor discipline, leading the country to lose 32% of its 23.5 million livestock by 1932. Extreme anti-religious policies that targeted low-ranking clergy in addition to the nobility, leading to a Lamaist rebellion in western Mongolia that was defeated in 1932. The Central Committee held a meeting in 1932 and purged [[Zolbingiin Shijee|Shijee]], [[Ölziitiin Badrakh|Badrakh]], and other [[Ultra-leftism|ultra-leftists]].<ref name=":032" /><sup>:330–3</sup> | After the redistribution of land and livestock, peasants formed basic [[Worker cooperative|cooperatives]]. The Eighth Party Congress in 1930 adopted a plan for full [[collectivization]] of agriculture. They rapidly formed communes that were poorly organized and lacked labor discipline, leading the country to lose 32% of its 23.5 million livestock by 1932. Extreme anti-religious policies that targeted low-ranking clergy in addition to the nobility, leading to a Lamaist rebellion in western Mongolia that was defeated in 1932. The Central Committee held a meeting in 1932 and purged [[Zolbingiin Shijee|Shijee]], [[Ölziitiin Badrakh|Badrakh]], and other [[Ultra-leftism|ultra-leftists]].<ref name=":032" /><sup>:330–3</sup> | ||
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Monasteries were mostly empty by 1938 after the lower-ranking lamas abandoned them. Voluntary production associations reemerged, with about 90 active by 1940.<ref name=":032" /><sup>:351–3</sup> | Monasteries were mostly empty by 1938 after the lower-ranking lamas abandoned them. Voluntary production associations reemerged, with about 90 active by 1940.<ref name=":032" /><sup>:351–3</sup> | ||
===== Industry ===== | |||
In 1933, Mongolia opened a mechanical wool-washing factory in Hatkhyl. In 1934 March, Mongolia began industrial production of leather and wool products. The number of industrial [[Proletariat|workers]] in 1934 was ten times higher than in 1928. Low-ranking lamas joined the 33 producers' associations that had over 1,000 members. The government began building roads, with car travel increasing twelve times between 1932 and 1934. In 1934, 8,000 of the country's 11,000 industrial and office workers were [[Trade union|unionized]]. In 1937, the Central Committee began competition in state and cooperative enterprises, and the [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1922–1991)|USSR]] transferred full ownership of mixed enterprises to Mongolia.<ref name=":032" /><sup>:338–41</sup> | |||
===== Agriculture ===== | ===== Agriculture ===== | ||
The first ten mechanized haymaking stations opened in 1937 and increased to 24 stations in 1938. The area of hay harvested grew from 2,000 hectares in 1924 to 200,000 in 1940. By 1940, state farms and agricultural industry had over 160 tractors and 1,000 mowers.<ref name=":032" /><sup>:352–3</sup> | The first ten mechanized haymaking stations opened in 1937 and increased to 24 stations in 1938. The area of hay harvested grew from 2,000 hectares in 1924 to 200,000 in 1940. By 1940, state farms and agricultural industry had over 160 tractors and 1,000 mowers.<ref name=":032" /><sup>:352–3</sup> | ||
===== Livestock ===== | ===== Livestock ===== | ||
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==== First Five-Year Plan (1948–1952) ==== | ==== First Five-Year Plan (1948–1952) ==== | ||
Mongolia lost six million livestock during the war. It began its first five-year plan in 1948 to recover from the war. In 1949, the Central Committee criticized bourgeois nationalist views of history and literature that glorified [[Genghis Khan|Chinggis Khan]]. In 1950, the Grand People's Hural introduced a tax on animal breeding but exempted excess animals from above the plan quota from taxation. Peasants had to pay amounts of meat, wool, fat, and milk based on the plan quotas. Worker competition increased to involve 90% of workers by 1952, and many workers exceeded their quotas by six or more times in the mining, building, and transportation industries.<ref name=":032" /><sup>:388–93 | Mongolia lost six million livestock during the war. It began its first five-year plan in 1948 to recover from the war. In 1949, the Central Committee criticized bourgeois nationalist views of history and literature that glorified [[Genghis Khan|Chinggis Khan]]. In 1950, the Grand People's Hural introduced a tax on animal breeding but exempted excess animals from above the plan quota from taxation. Peasants had to pay amounts of meat, wool, fat, and milk based on the plan quotas. Worker competition increased to involve 90% of workers by 1952, and many workers exceeded their quotas by six or more times in the mining, building, and transportation industries.<ref name=":032" /><sup>:388–93</sup> | ||
During the First Five-Year Plan, the number of horse-powered haymaking units increased by five times, and livestock shelters increased by 3.5 times. The number of livestock increased by 8.7% but did not reach the quota of 31 million. The area of land cultivated by state farms exceeded the target by 51.1%, and grain production exceeded its target by 12.5%. Industrial output in 1951 was 51% higher than in 1947 and 150% higher than in 1940. Wages for industrial workers grew by 22% during the plan and labor productivity by 28.8%. Butter production doubled, and industrial food production grew by 17.1% | During the First Five-Year Plan, the number of horse-powered haymaking units increased by five times, and livestock shelters increased by 3.5 times. The number of livestock increased by 8.7% but did not reach the quota of 31 million. The area of land cultivated by state farms exceeded the target by 51.1%, and grain production exceeded its target by 12.5%. Industrial output in 1951 was 51% higher than in 1947 and 150% higher than in 1940. Wages for industrial workers grew by 22% during the plan and labor productivity by 28.8%. Butter production doubled, and industrial food production grew by 17.1%.<ref name=":032" /><sup>:394–6</sup> | ||
=== Sino-Soviet Split === | === Sino-Soviet Split === | ||
In | In 1962, the Central Committee of the MPRP criticized an alleged [[cult of personality]] around Khorloogiin Choibalsan.<ref name=":032" /><sup>:348</sup> | ||
For the first decade after the [[Sino-Soviet split]], Mongolia was neutral. In January 1966, Mongolia and the Soviet Union signed a mutual defense treaty. In the first half of 1969, over 4,000 livestock shelters were built that were capable of protecting over 1.8 million animals from the cold.<ref>{{Citation|author=Robert A. Smith|year=1970|title=Mongolia: In the Soviet Camp|title-url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2642142?read-now=1&refreqid=excelsior%3A34573745e622e1d2daad8826b136471c&seq=1|page=25–29|publisher=University of California Press}}</ref> | For the first decade after the [[Sino-Soviet split]], Mongolia was neutral. In January 1966, Mongolia and the Soviet Union signed a mutual defense treaty. In the first half of 1969, over 4,000 livestock shelters were built that were capable of protecting over 1.8 million animals from the cold.<ref>{{Citation|author=Robert A. Smith|year=1970|title=Mongolia: In the Soviet Camp|title-url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2642142?read-now=1&refreqid=excelsior%3A34573745e622e1d2daad8826b136471c&seq=1|page=25–29|publisher=University of California Press}}</ref> | ||
=== Counterrevolution === | === Counterrevolution === | ||
In 1990, a [[Colour revolution|color revolution]] occurred and bourgeois parties were allowed to compete in elections. The Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party still won but eventually became a [[Social democracy|social democratic]] party by 1991.<ref>{{Citation|author=Dieter Nohlen, et al.|year=2001|title=Elections in Asia: A data handbook|chapter=|section=|page=490|quote=|pdf=|city=|publisher=|isbn=0199249598|doi=|lg=|mia=|title-url=|chapter-url=|trans-title=|trans-lang=}}</ref> The current constitution of [[Mongolia]] was adopted in 1992. After the adoption of the new constitution, the name of the state became "Mongolia. | In 1990, a [[Colour revolution|color revolution]] occurred and bourgeois parties were allowed to compete in elections. The Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party still won but eventually became a [[Social democracy|social democratic]] party by 1991.<ref>{{Citation|author=Dieter Nohlen, et al.|year=2001|title=Elections in Asia: A data handbook|chapter=|section=|page=490|quote=|pdf=|city=|publisher=|isbn=0199249598|doi=|lg=|mia=|title-url=|chapter-url=|trans-title=|trans-lang=}}</ref> The current constitution of [[Mongolia]] was adopted in 1992. After the adoption of the new constitution, the name of the state became "Mongolia".<ref>[https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Mongolia_2001.pdf?lang=en "Mongolia's Constitution of 1992 with Amendments through 2001."] Constitute Project. PDF generated 27 Apr 2022. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220508161003/https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Mongolia_2001.pdf?lang=en Archived] 2022-05-08.</ref> | ||
== Government == | == Government == | ||
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=== Local government === | === Local government === | ||
Local hurals existed in addition to the Grand Hural.<ref name=":03" /><sup>:318 | Local hurals existed in addition to the Grand Hural.<ref name=":03" /><sup>:318</sup> | ||
=== Elections === | === Elections === | ||
Under the MPR's 1924 constitution, soldiers and all citizens aged 18 or older who earned a livelihood with their own [[labour]] could vote regardless of gender. Former members of the clergy and secular nobility could not vote.<ref name=":03" /><sup>:316</sup> | Under the MPR's 1924 constitution, soldiers and all citizens aged 18 or older who earned a livelihood with their own [[labour]] could vote regardless of gender. Former members of the clergy and secular nobility could not vote.<ref name=":03" /><sup>:316</sup> | ||
== Space program == | == Space program == | ||
In 1978, aeronautical engineer Jügderdemidiin | In 1978, aeronautical engineer Jügderdemidiin Gürragcha (Mongolian: ''Жүгдэрдэмидийн Гүррагчаа'') was selected to participate in the [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1922–1991)|Soviet Union]]’s eighth international [[Intercosmos]] mission, as a researcher on the [[Soyuz 39]] mission. On March 22, 1981, he launched into space from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in [[Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic (1936–1991)|Kazakhstan]], becoming the first Mongolian cosmonaut. He spent nearly eight days in space, carrying out scientific experiments on the Soviet space station [[Salyut 6]]. Gurragcha left the space program on March 30, 1981, and was awarded the title [[Hero of the Soviet Union]].<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jugderdemidiin-Gurragcha “Jugderdemidiin Gurragcha | Mongolian Cosmonaut.”] In ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20221122045241/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jugderdemidiin-Gurragcha Archived] 2022-11-22.</ref> | ||
== Further reading == | == Further reading == | ||
* ''[[Library:History of the Mongolian People's Republic|History of the Mongolian People's Republic]]'': Part Two | * ''[[Library:History of the Mongolian People's Republic|History of the Mongolian People's Republic]]'': Part Two | ||
== References == | == References == | ||
<references /> | <references /> | ||
[[Category:Former socialist states]] | [[Category:Former socialist states]] |