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Between late 1929 and early 1930, over 600 of 729 large estates were confiscated and their livestock were given to poor peasants who owned no or very few cattle. By 1932 April, over 11,000 feudal estates had been redistributed. In 1930 December, Mongolia introduced a state monopoly on foreign trade, with that year capitalist exports and imports at only 26% and 9.8%, respectively. In 1931, the country redrew its administrative divisions.<ref name=":032" /><sup>:328–30</sup> | Between late 1929 and early 1930, over 600 of 729 large estates were confiscated and their livestock were given to poor peasants who owned no or very few cattle. By 1932 April, over 11,000 feudal estates had been redistributed. In 1930 December, Mongolia introduced a state monopoly on foreign trade, with that year capitalist exports and imports at only 26% and 9.8%, respectively. In 1931, the country redrew its administrative divisions.<ref name=":032" /><sup>:328–30</sup> | ||
==== Ultra-leftist | ==== Ultra-leftist errors (1930–1932) ==== | ||
After the redistribution of land and livestock, peasants formed basic [[Worker cooperative|cooperatives]]. The Eighth Party Congress in 1930 adopted a plan for full [[collectivization]] of agriculture. They rapidly formed communes that were poorly organized and lacked labor discipline, leading the country to lose 32% of its 23.5 million livestock by 1932. Extreme anti-religious policies that targeted low-ranking clergy in addition to the nobility, leading to a Lamaist rebellion in western Mongolia that was defeated in 1932. The Central Committee held a meeting in 1932 and purged [[Zolbingiin Shijee|Shijee]], [[Ölziitiin Badrakh|Badrakh]], and other [[Ultra-leftism|ultra-leftists]].<ref name=":032" /><sup>:330–3</sup> | After the redistribution of land and livestock, peasants formed basic [[Worker cooperative|cooperatives]]. The Eighth Party Congress in 1930 adopted a plan for full [[collectivization]] of agriculture. They rapidly formed communes that were poorly organized and lacked labor discipline, leading the country to lose 32% of its 23.5 million livestock by 1932. Extreme anti-religious policies that targeted low-ranking clergy in addition to the nobility, leading to a Lamaist rebellion in western Mongolia that was defeated in 1932. The Central Committee held a meeting in 1932 and purged [[Zolbingiin Shijee|Shijee]], [[Ölziitiin Badrakh|Badrakh]], and other [[Ultra-leftism|ultra-leftists]].<ref name=":032" /><sup>:330–3</sup> | ||
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Monasteries were mostly empty by 1938 after the lower-ranking lamas abandoned them. Voluntary production associations reemerged, with about 90 active by 1940.<ref name=":032" /><sup>:351–3</sup> | Monasteries were mostly empty by 1938 after the lower-ranking lamas abandoned them. Voluntary production associations reemerged, with about 90 active by 1940.<ref name=":032" /><sup>:351–3</sup> | ||
===== Industry ===== | |||
In 1933, Mongolia opened a mechanical wool-washing factory in Hatkhyl. In 1934 March, Mongolia began industrial production of leather and wool products. The number of industrial [[Proletariat|workers]] in 1934 was ten times higher than in 1928. Low-ranking lamas joined the 33 producers' associations that had over 1,000 members. The government began building roads, with car travel increasing twelve times between 1932 and 1934. In 1934, 8,000 of the country's 11,000 industrial and office workers were [[Trade union|unionized]]. In 1937, the Central Committee began competition in state and cooperative enterprises, and the [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1922–1991)|USSR]] transferred full ownership of mixed enterprises to Mongolia.<ref name=":032" /><sup>:338–41</sup> | |||
===== Agriculture ===== | ===== Agriculture ===== | ||
The first ten mechanized haymaking stations opened in 1937 and increased to 24 stations in 1938. The area of hay harvested grew from 2,000 hectares in 1924 to 200,000 in 1940. By 1940, state farms and agricultural industry had over 160 tractors and 1,000 mowers.<ref name=":032" /><sup>:352–3</sup> | The first ten mechanized haymaking stations opened in 1937 and increased to 24 stations in 1938. The area of hay harvested grew from 2,000 hectares in 1924 to 200,000 in 1940. By 1940, state farms and agricultural industry had over 160 tractors and 1,000 mowers.<ref name=":032" /><sup>:352–3</sup> | ||
===== Livestock ===== | ===== Livestock ===== | ||
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==== Three-Year Plan (1958–1960) ==== | ==== Three-Year Plan (1958–1960) ==== | ||
Between 1958 and 1960, Mongolia began growing grain in 300,000 hectares of previously uncultivated land with the help of hundreds of specialists and 2,500 tractors from the USSR. Industrial output grew by 63.8%, reaching 7.4 times the 1940 level in 1960. By 1960, all ''sums'' (counties) were had direct telephone connections to provincial (''aimag'') centers. By 1960, proletarian families made up 36.1% of the country's population and 99.3% of farms were collectivized with a total of over five million ''bodo'' of livestock. 200,000 small farms had merged into 389 large collective farms with an average population of 1,161 humans and 13,000 ''bodo''. Peasants could privately own up to 10 or 15 livestock per person or 50 to 75 per family.<ref name=":033" /><sup>:412–29</sup> | Between 1958 and 1960, Mongolia began growing grain in 300,000 hectares of previously uncultivated land with the help of hundreds of specialists and 2,500 tractors from the USSR. Industrial output grew by 63.8%, reaching 7.4 times the 1940 level in 1960. By 1960, all ''sums'' (counties) were had direct telephone connections to provincial (''aimag'') centers. By 1960, proletarian families made up 36.1% of the country's population and 99.3% of farms were collectivized with a total of over five million ''bodo'' of livestock. 200,000 small farms had merged into 389 large collective farms with an average population of 1,161 humans and 13,000 ''bodo''. Peasants could privately own up to 10 or 15 livestock per person or 50 to 75 per family.<ref name=":033" /><sup>:412–29</sup> | ||
=== Sino-Soviet Split === | === Sino-Soviet Split === | ||
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For the first decade after the [[Sino-Soviet split]], Mongolia was neutral. In January 1966, Mongolia and the Soviet Union signed a mutual defense treaty. In the first half of 1969, over 4,000 livestock shelters were built that were capable of protecting over 1.8 million animals from the cold.<ref>{{Citation|author=Robert A. Smith|year=1970|title=Mongolia: In the Soviet Camp|title-url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2642142?read-now=1&refreqid=excelsior%3A34573745e622e1d2daad8826b136471c&seq=1|page=25–29|publisher=University of California Press}}</ref> | For the first decade after the [[Sino-Soviet split]], Mongolia was neutral. In January 1966, Mongolia and the Soviet Union signed a mutual defense treaty. In the first half of 1969, over 4,000 livestock shelters were built that were capable of protecting over 1.8 million animals from the cold.<ref>{{Citation|author=Robert A. Smith|year=1970|title=Mongolia: In the Soviet Camp|title-url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2642142?read-now=1&refreqid=excelsior%3A34573745e622e1d2daad8826b136471c&seq=1|page=25–29|publisher=University of California Press}}</ref> | ||
=== Counterrevolution === | === Counterrevolution === | ||
In 1990, a [[Colour revolution|color revolution]] occurred and bourgeois parties were allowed to compete in elections. The Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party still won but eventually became a [[Social democracy|social democratic]] party by 1991.<ref>{{Citation|author=Dieter Nohlen, et al.|year=2001|title=Elections in Asia: A data handbook|chapter=|section=|page=490|quote=|pdf=|city=|publisher=|isbn=0199249598|doi=|lg=|mia=|title-url=|chapter-url=|trans-title=|trans-lang=}}</ref> The current constitution of [[Mongolia]] was adopted in 1992. After the adoption of the new constitution, the name of the state became "Mongolia. | In 1990, a [[Colour revolution|color revolution]] occurred and bourgeois parties were allowed to compete in elections. The Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party still won but eventually became a [[Social democracy|social democratic]] party by 1991.<ref>{{Citation|author=Dieter Nohlen, et al.|year=2001|title=Elections in Asia: A data handbook|chapter=|section=|page=490|quote=|pdf=|city=|publisher=|isbn=0199249598|doi=|lg=|mia=|title-url=|chapter-url=|trans-title=|trans-lang=}}</ref> The current constitution of [[Mongolia]] was adopted in 1992. After the adoption of the new constitution, the name of the state became "Mongolia".<ref>[https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Mongolia_2001.pdf?lang=en "Mongolia's Constitution of 1992 with Amendments through 2001."] Constitute Project. PDF generated 27 Apr 2022. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220508161003/https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Mongolia_2001.pdf?lang=en Archived] 2022-05-08.</ref> | ||
== Government == | == Government == | ||
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In 1949, Mongolia introduced the secret ballot and replaced all indirect elections with direct ones.<ref name=":032" /><sup>:401</sup> | In 1949, Mongolia introduced the secret ballot and replaced all indirect elections with direct ones.<ref name=":032" /><sup>:401</sup> | ||
== Trade == | == Trade == | ||
Mongolia joined the [[Council for Mutual Economic Assistance]] in 1962 July. In addition to trading with other socialist countries, it traded with [[Arab Republic of Egypt|Egypt]], [[Republic of Finland|Finland]], [[French Republic|France]], [[Republic of India|India]], [[Japan]], [[Kingdom of Sweden|Sweden]], [[Swiss Confederation|Switzerland]], and the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland|UK]].<ref name=":033">{{Citation|author=A. A. Guber, et al.|year=1973|title=History of the Mongolian People's Republic|title-url=https://archive.org/details/HistoryOfTheMPR/page/n202/mode/1up|chapter=The Fight of the Mongolian People for the Victory of Socialism|page=}}</ref | Mongolia joined the [[Council for Mutual Economic Assistance]] in 1962 July. In addition to trading with other socialist countries, it traded with [[Arab Republic of Egypt|Egypt]], [[Republic of Finland|Finland]], [[French Republic|France]], [[Republic of India|India]], [[Japan]], [[Kingdom of Sweden|Sweden]], [[Swiss Confederation|Switzerland]], and the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland|UK]].<ref name=":033">{{Citation|author=A. A. Guber, et al.|year=1973|title=History of the Mongolian People's Republic|title-url=https://archive.org/details/HistoryOfTheMPR/page/n202/mode/1up|chapter=The Fight of the Mongolian People for the Victory of Socialism|page=}}</ref> | ||
== Education == | == Education == | ||
During the First Five-Year Plan, the number of students in primary schools increased by 84.4%, seven-year schools by 33.3%, 300% in ten-year schools, 27% in technical institutes, and 100% in universities. By 1952, adult literacy was 99%.<ref name=":032" /><sup>:400</sup> | |||
During the First Five-Year Plan | |||
== Space program == | == Space program == | ||
In 1978, aeronautical engineer Jügderdemidiin Gürragchaa was selected to participate in the [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1922–1991)|Soviet Union]]'s eighth international [[Intercosmos]] mission, as a researcher on the [[Soyuz 39]] mission. On March 22, 1981, he launched into space from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in [[Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic (1936–1991)|Kazakhstan]], becoming the first Mongolian cosmonaut. He spent nearly eight days in space, carrying out scientific experiments on the Soviet space station [[Salyut 6]]. Gurragcha left the space program on March 30, 1981, and was awarded the title [[Hero of the Soviet Union]].<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jugderdemidiin-Gurragcha “Jugderdemidiin Gurragcha | Mongolian Cosmonaut.”] In ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20221122045241/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jugderdemidiin-Gurragcha Archived] 2022-11-22.</ref> | In 1978, aeronautical engineer Jügderdemidiin Gürragchaa (Mongolian: ''Жүгдэрдэмидийн Гүррагчаа'') was selected to participate in the [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1922–1991)|Soviet Union]]'s eighth international [[Intercosmos]] mission, as a researcher on the [[Soyuz 39]] mission. On March 22, 1981, he launched into space from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in [[Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic (1936–1991)|Kazakhstan]], becoming the first Mongolian cosmonaut. He spent nearly eight days in space, carrying out scientific experiments on the Soviet space station [[Salyut 6]]. Gurragcha left the space program on March 30, 1981, and was awarded the title [[Hero of the Soviet Union]].<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jugderdemidiin-Gurragcha “Jugderdemidiin Gurragcha | Mongolian Cosmonaut.”] In ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20221122045241/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jugderdemidiin-Gurragcha Archived] 2022-11-22.</ref> | ||
== Further reading == | == Further reading == |