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{{Infobox country|name=United Republic of Tanzania|native_name=Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania|image_flag=Flag of Tanzania.svg|image_coat=Coat of arms of Tanzania.svg|capital=Dodoma|largest_city=Dar es Salaam|mode_of_production=[[Capitalism]]|image_map=Tanzania map.svg|map_width=260|official_languages=Swahili<br>English|area_km2=947,303|population_estimate=65,642,682|population_estimate_year=2023}} | {{Infobox country|name=United Republic of Tanzania|native_name=Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania|image_flag=Flag of Tanzania.svg|image_coat=Coat of arms of Tanzania.svg|capital=Dodoma|largest_city=Dar es Salaam|mode_of_production=[[Capitalism]]|image_map=Tanzania map.svg|map_width=260|official_languages=Swahili<br>English|area_km2=947,303|population_estimate=65,642,682|population_estimate_year=2023}} | ||
'''Tanzania''', officially the '''United Republic of Tanzania''', is a country in | '''Tanzania''', officially the '''United Republic of Tanzania''', is a country in East Africa bordering [[Republic of Kenya|Kenya]], [[Republic of Uganda|Uganda]], [[Republic of Rwanda|Rwanda]], [[Republic of Burundi|Burundi]], [[Republic of Zambia|Zambia]], [[Malawi]], and [[Mozambique]]. It was originally a [[German Empire (1871–1918)|German]] colony before being occupied by the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland|British]] in the [[First World War]]. | ||
== History == | == History == | ||
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Tanzania's eastern side is coastal, lying on the [[Indian Ocean]]. This position made the area a point of contact between many different cultures and nations for many centuries via trade routes, which has had various impacts on the region's history. Trade along the East African coast by Bantu speaking peoples living there in the first centuries of the 1st millennium during the region's Iron Age resulted in people moving in greater numbers to the coast, spreading influence in art and architecture, along with the Bantu language of Swahili.<ref name=":2">Cartwight, Mark. [https://www.worldhistory.org/Swahili_Coast/ "Swahili Coast."] World History Encyclopedia, 2019-04-01. [https://web.archive.org/web/20240529164418/https://www.worldhistory.org/Swahili_Coast/ Archived] 2024-05-29.</ref> | Tanzania's eastern side is coastal, lying on the [[Indian Ocean]]. This position made the area a point of contact between many different cultures and nations for many centuries via trade routes, which has had various impacts on the region's history. Trade along the East African coast by Bantu speaking peoples living there in the first centuries of the 1st millennium during the region's Iron Age resulted in people moving in greater numbers to the coast, spreading influence in art and architecture, along with the Bantu language of Swahili.<ref name=":2">Cartwight, Mark. [https://www.worldhistory.org/Swahili_Coast/ "Swahili Coast."] World History Encyclopedia, 2019-04-01. [https://web.archive.org/web/20240529164418/https://www.worldhistory.org/Swahili_Coast/ Archived] 2024-05-29.</ref> | ||
Over time, a number of city-states had arisen on the East African coast. The influence of | Over time, a number of city-states had arisen on the East African coast. The influence of Islam and Arabic came to the coast with Arab traders in the 7th century. At the height of their influence in the 12th-15th century, the coastal city-states traded with African tribes extending to inland locations (such as to Great Zimbabwe via Sofala), as well as extended to Arabia, Persia, India, and China across the Indian Ocean.<ref name=":2" /> | ||
=== Portuguese disruptions === | === Portuguese disruptions === | ||
When the | When the Portuguese arrived in the region, they aimed to achieve total control of the Indian Ocean trade networks. The Portuguese sank ships, destroyed cities, built forts, and exploited rivalries between states, creating major disruptions in the long-established trade networks, as well as attempting to move inland and causing similar disruptions to other peoples, such as targeting the Mutapa state in what is now Zimbabwe. Over time, the Portuguese shifted much of their focus to what is now Mozambique, the southern neighbor of modern Tanzania.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Web citation|author=Mark Cartwright|newspaper=World History Encyclopedia|title=The Portuguese in East Africa|date=2021-07-15.|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1798/the-portuguese-in-east-africa/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240430064838/https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1798/the-portuguese-in-east-africa/|archive-date=2024-04-30}}</ref> | ||
=== Colonization === | === Colonization === | ||
The Portuguese disrupted and colonized the Tanzanian coast for approximately two centuries (circa 1500-1700) until they were ousted by a coalition of the local people and the [[Sultanate of Oman|Omani]] Arabs. Following this, the Omani Arabs occupied Zanzibar and the coast as well as claiming some inland areas.<ref>Mulokozi, M.M. [https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000139564 "Study report on the common oral traditions of Southern Africa: a survey of Tanzanian oral traditions."] UNESCO, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, 1999. [https://web.archive.org/web/20240602064413/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000139564/PDF/139564engo.pdf.multi Archived] 2024-06-02.</ref> | The Portuguese disrupted and colonized the Tanzanian coast for approximately two centuries (circa 1500-1700) until they were ousted by a coalition of the local people and the [[Sultanate of Oman|Omani]] Arabs. Following this, the Omani Arabs occupied Zanzibar and the coast as well as claiming some inland areas.<ref>Mulokozi, M.M. [https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000139564 "Study report on the common oral traditions of Southern Africa: a survey of Tanzanian oral traditions."] UNESCO, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, 1999. [https://web.archive.org/web/20240602064413/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000139564/PDF/139564engo.pdf.multi Archived] 2024-06-02.</ref> | ||
By the 1800s, there was an increase of British, French, and German activity in the region. The British were active in the Indian Ocean trade. The French were purchasers of slaves for their colonies in the region (though the French officially banned the slave trade in 1822). Europeans began exploring the interior of the country in the mid-1800s, including groups of | By the 1800s, there was an increase of British, French, and German activity in the region. The British were active in the Indian Ocean trade. The French were purchasers of slaves for their colonies in the region (though the French officially banned the slave trade in 1822). Europeans began exploring the interior of the country in the mid-1800s, including groups of Christian missionaries. Germany began to establish their presence on the mainland in the late 1800s,<ref name=":1" /> largely through the efforts of the German Colonization Society founded by future colonial governor, Dr. Karl Peters.<ref name=":3">{{Web citation|author=Alys Beverton|newspaper=BlackPast|title=Maji Maji Uprising (1905-1907)|date=2009-06-21|url=https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/maji-maji-uprising-1905-1907/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240222021404/https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/maji-maji-uprising-1905-1907/|archive-date=2024-02-22}}</ref> | ||
Tanzania underwent two periods of formal colonial rule by European powers, first by Germany as part of | Tanzania underwent two periods of formal colonial rule by European powers, first by Germany as part of German East Africa from 1888-1919, and second by Britain from 1919-1961. The region was made a League of Nations mandate after Germany's defeat in the First World War, with colonial control transferred to the British. Under British rule the region was renamed to Tanganyika Territory. Following the Second World War, Tanganyika became a "trust territory" under UN monitoring, with Britain as its administering power.<ref>McCarthy, D. M. P. [https://archive.org/details/colonialbureaucr0000mcca/ "Colonial bureaucracy and creating underdevelopment: Tanganyika, 1919-1940."] The Iowa State University Press, 1982.</ref><ref name=":4">[https://www.jp.tzembassy.go.tz/resources/view/every-december-9th-is-the-commemoration-of-tanganyika-independence-day "Every December 9th : is the Commemoration of Tanzania Mainland Independence Day."] Embassy of Tanzania in Tokyo, Japan, 2023-12-09. [https://web.archive.org/web/20240530050154/https://www.jp.tzembassy.go.tz/resources/view/every-december-9th-is-the-commemoration-of-tanganyika-independence-day Archived] 2024-05-30.</ref><ref name=":0" /> | ||
==== German rule (1888-1919) ==== | ==== German rule (1888-1919) ==== | ||
Germany ruled the mainland of Tanzania as "German East Africa" until the end of the First World War, while Zanzibar became a British protectorate. Initially, German colonial rule was via the imperial charter of the German East Africa Company, but by 1891, governance was changed over to the German government itself.<ref name=":1" /> | Germany ruled the mainland of Tanzania as "German East Africa" until the end of the First World War, while Zanzibar became a British protectorate. Initially, German colonial rule was via the imperial charter of the German East Africa Company, but by 1891, governance was changed over to the German government itself.<ref name=":1" /> | ||
The Germans used forced labor to construct infrastructure such as roads and railway systems, and instructed villages to grow cotton as a cash crop instead of traditionally grown food crops, and subjected the population to high taxation, enforced through repression and violence. The policies and practices of German rule were extremely unpopular with the local people, and the German colonizers were met with significant resistance.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" /> | The Germans used forced labor to construct infrastructure such as roads and railway systems, and instructed villages to grow cotton as a cash crop instead of traditionally grown food crops, and subjected the population to high taxation, enforced through repression and violence. The policies and practices of German rule were extremely unpopular with the local people, and the German colonizers were met with significant resistance.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" /> | ||
===== Maji Maji Uprising (1905-1907) ===== | ===== Maji Maji Uprising (1905-1907) ===== | ||
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The rebellion spread all throughout the colony, eventually involving 20 ethnic groups who wanted to oust the colonizers. In August 1905, several thousand warriors attacked a German stronghold, but failed to overrun it. The German response was brutal, killing men, women, and children and adopting famine as a weapon. It is estimated that between 75,000 and 120,000 Africans were killed and many more were displaced from their homes during this two-year period of revolt against German rule.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" /> | The rebellion spread all throughout the colony, eventually involving 20 ethnic groups who wanted to oust the colonizers. In August 1905, several thousand warriors attacked a German stronghold, but failed to overrun it. The German response was brutal, killing men, women, and children and adopting famine as a weapon. It is estimated that between 75,000 and 120,000 Africans were killed and many more were displaced from their homes during this two-year period of revolt against German rule.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" /> | ||
Although the uprising was ultimately unsuccessful, the German government was pressured to institute some reforms | Although the uprising was ultimately unsuccessful, the German government was pressured to institute some reforms. Furthermore, the uprising would become an inspiration for later freedom fighters against European colonial rule.<ref name=":3" /> | ||
==== First World War ==== | ==== First World War ==== | ||
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==== Second World War ==== | ==== Second World War ==== | ||
==== Trust territory under British rule (1946-1961) ==== | ==== Trust territory under British rule (1946-1961) ==== | ||
Following the Second World War, along with the other remaining League of Nations mandates, Tanganyika became a United Nations (UN) trust territory, with Britain as its administering power.<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Web citation|newspaper=United Nations|title=List of former Trust and Non-Self-Governing Territories|url=https://www.un.org/dppa/decolonization/en/history/former-trust-and-nsgts}}</ref> Under the terms of the trust agreement, Britain nominally had the responsibility of preparing Tanganyika for independence, and was considered accountable to the UN's Trusteeship Council in that regard, though in practice the British governed Tanganyika similarly to their other colonies.<ref name=":5" /> As a trust territory, the government of Tanganyika had to report every three years to the UN's Trusteeship Council as well as be periodically assessed by a visiting mission from the Council to study the trust territory's conditions.<ref name=":8">{{Citation|author=Sophia Mustafa|year=1961|title=The Tanganyika Way|title-url=https://archive.org/details/tanganyikaway0000unse|city=Dar es Salaam|publisher=East African Literature Bureau}}</ref> | Following the Second World War, along with the other remaining League of Nations mandates, Tanganyika became a United Nations (UN) trust territory, with Britain as its administering power.<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Web citation|newspaper=United Nations|title=List of former Trust and Non-Self-Governing Territories|url=https://www.un.org/dppa/decolonization/en/history/former-trust-and-nsgts}}</ref> Under the terms of the trust agreement, Britain nominally had the responsibility of preparing Tanganyika for independence, and was considered accountable to the UN's Trusteeship Council in that regard, though in practice the British governed Tanganyika similarly to their other colonies.<ref name=":5" /> As a trust territory, the government of Tanganyika had to report every three years to the UN's Trusteeship Council as well as be periodically assessed by a visiting mission from the Council to study the trust territory's conditions.<ref name=":8">{{Citation|author=Sophia Mustafa|year=1961|title=The Tanganyika Way|title-url=https://archive.org/details/tanganyikaway0000unse|city=Dar es Salaam|publisher=East African Literature Bureau}}</ref> | ||
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=== Zanzibar Revolution (1964) === | === Zanzibar Revolution (1964) === | ||
The Sultanate of Zanzibar formally attained independence from Britain on December 10, 1963. A month later, on 12 January 1964, a revolution began which led to the overthrow of the sultan. It was described by one historian as a revolution which "replaced a conservative Arab-dominated regime with one that espoused the principles of African nationalism and radical socialism and that developed close ties with communist bloc countries."<ref>{{Citation|author=Ian Speller|year=2007|title=An African Cuba? Britain and the Zanzibar Revolution, 1964|pdf=https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/arts/history/students/modules/hi277/programme/t1w7/hi277_week_7_zanzibar_speller_.pdf|publisher=Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History|doi=10.1080/03086530701337666}}</ref> | The Sultanate of Zanzibar formally attained independence from Britain on December 10, 1963. A month later, on 12 January 1964, a revolution began which led to the overthrow of the sultan. It was described by one historian as a revolution which "replaced a conservative Arab-dominated regime with one that espoused the principles of African nationalism and radical socialism and that developed close ties with communist bloc countries."<ref>{{Citation|author=Ian Speller|year=2007|title=An African Cuba? Britain and the Zanzibar Revolution, 1964|pdf=https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/arts/history/students/modules/hi277/programme/t1w7/hi277_week_7_zanzibar_speller_.pdf|publisher=Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History|doi=10.1080/03086530701337666}}</ref> | ||
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In 1965, Tanzania formally became a one-party state.<ref name=":5" /> | In 1965, Tanzania formally became a one-party state.<ref name=":5" /> | ||
From 1965 to 1968, Tanzania broke off diplomatic relations with Britain due to their policy on | From 1965 to 1968, Tanzania broke off diplomatic relations with Britain due to their policy on Rhodesia's "unilateral declaration of independence" under white settler minority rule.<ref name=":9" /> | ||
In 1967, President Julius Nyerere announced the creation of a [[socialist state]] in the [[Arusha Declaration]]. He nationalized key industries while developing agriculture and industry. He merged all [[Trade union|unions]] into the [[National Union of Tanganyika Workers]].<ref name=":122" /> | |||
In 1967, President Nyerere announced the | |||
Activist and historian [[Walter Rodney]], who had visited Tanzania in 1966, came to live in Tanzania from 1969 to 1974, after having been banned from [[Jamaica]]. He taught history and political science at the [[University of Dar es Salaam]], and also wrote articles in left-wing publications such as ''[[Cheche]]'' (meaning "spark" in Swahili) and engaged in political discussions and debates.<ref>{{Web citation|author=Chinedu Chukwudinma|newspaper=MR Online, originally published by ROAPE (Review of African Political Economy)|title=The Mecca of African Liberation: Walter Rodney in Tanzania|date=2022-04-07|url=https://mronline.org/2022/04/13/the-mecca-of-african-liberation/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240606112456/https://mronline.org/2022/04/13/the-mecca-of-african-liberation/|archive-date=2024-06-06}}</ref> | |||
The | The Sixth [[Pan-African Congress]] was held in Dar es Salaam in 1974, from June 19th to 27th.<ref>Farmer, Ashley. [https://www.aaihs.org/black-women-organize-for-the-future-of-pan-africanism-the-sixth-pan-african-congress/ "Black Women Organize for the Future of Pan-Africanism: The Sixth Pan-African Congress."] African American Intellectual History Society, 2016-07-03. [https://web.archive.org/web/20240606123620/https://www.aaihs.org/black-women-organize-for-the-future-of-pan-africanism-the-sixth-pan-african-congress/ Archived] 2024-06-06.</ref> | ||
Author [[Vijay Prashad]], in his work ''The Darker Nations'' which explores setbacks in the Third World revolutionary movements' struggles to enact their agendas, described the ujamaa villages as having two major flaws in his view, firstly that they were not constructed so as to "refashion the gendered aspects of social power" and thus failed to deal with [[Patriarchy|patriarchal]] relations, and secondly, that the policy left no time to persuade the peasantry, and thus often relied on force. Prashad notes that Tanzania's experience is consistent with "a vast number of examples of Third World development", in what he describes as "Third World socialism in a hurry" born out of the need for nations to develop rapidly.<ref name=":122" /> | |||
In February of 1977, TANU and ASP (the political party in Zanzibar) merged to form [[Chama cha Mapinduzi]] (CCM).<ref name=":5" /> | In February of 1977, TANU and ASP (the political party in Zanzibar) merged to form [[Chama cha Mapinduzi]] (CCM).<ref name=":5" /> | ||
==== Neoliberalization ==== | |||
==== Neoliberalization | |||
In a 2021 interview, Professor Issa G. Shivji described the last years of Nyerere's administration (1980-1985) as an "extremely difficult" period. He described it as a period where the [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]] and [[The World Bank|World Bank]] "mounted an offense" and started imposing increasingly neoliberal conditions on Tanzania, pointing out that this was the [[Margaret Thatcher|Thatcher]]-[[Ronald Reagan|Reagan]] era.<ref name=":12">{{Video citation|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gsYYW5TS5fk|channel=Tshisimani Centre for Activist Education|title=60 Years of Tanzanian Independence, with Prof Issa Shivji|date=2021-12-09}}</ref> Shivji describes:<blockquote>It was rationing, corruption became very high, people took advantage of the crisis situation to make a fast buck, the bureaucracy began to flex muscles, and the foreign governments, the so-called "donor" governments, as well as their organizations – like the World Bank, International Monetary Fund – also now, became stronger, and took an offense. Until then, they were on the defense. But now they mounted the offense.<ref name=":12" /></blockquote>In 1985, Nyerere stepped down from government, which was followed by further neoliberal policies and privatization to foreign capital over the following decades. In Shivji's analysis, the following ten years after Nyerere stepped down was a "transition period from Mwalimu's nationalism to full-fledged neoliberalism" under president [[Ali Hassan Mwinyi|Mwinyi]] (in office 1985-1995).<ref name=":12" /> In 1992, the constitution was amended to allow the formation of opposition parties, with the Eighth Constitutional Amendment Act coming into force in July 1992, putting an end to the one-party system.<ref name=":5" /> The first multi-party general election was subsequently held in October of 1995.<ref name=":5" /> | In a 2021 interview, Professor Issa G. Shivji described the last years of Nyerere's administration (1980-1985) as an "extremely difficult" period. He described it as a period where the [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]] and [[The World Bank|World Bank]] "mounted an offense" and started imposing increasingly neoliberal conditions on Tanzania, pointing out that this was the [[Margaret Thatcher|Thatcher]]-[[Ronald Reagan|Reagan]] era.<ref name=":12">{{Video citation|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gsYYW5TS5fk|channel=Tshisimani Centre for Activist Education|title=60 Years of Tanzanian Independence, with Prof Issa Shivji|date=2021-12-09}}</ref> Shivji describes:<blockquote>It was rationing, corruption became very high, people took advantage of the crisis situation to make a fast buck, the bureaucracy began to flex muscles, and the foreign governments, the so-called "donor" governments, as well as their organizations – like the World Bank, International Monetary Fund – also now, became stronger, and took an offense. Until then, they were on the defense. But now they mounted the offense.<ref name=":12" /></blockquote>In 1985, Nyerere stepped down from government, which was followed by further neoliberal policies and privatization to foreign capital over the following decades. In Shivji's analysis, the following ten years after Nyerere stepped down was a "transition period from Mwalimu's nationalism to full-fledged neoliberalism" under president [[Ali Hassan Mwinyi|Mwinyi]] (in office 1985-1995).<ref name=":12" /> In 1992, the constitution was amended to allow the formation of opposition parties, with the Eighth Constitutional Amendment Act coming into force in July 1992, putting an end to the one-party system.<ref name=":5" /> The first multi-party general election was subsequently held in October of 1995.<ref name=":5" /> | ||