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Early Times
The Primitive Community System in Our Country
Primeval Human Society
The Birth of Human Society
The first traces of human life in Europe date back to that distant penod when the climate was warm and humid. The luxununt, eveie»ee*i fo ests coiitoisled of laiuel, box, yew and othei species of trees. The and nveibanks abounded
in animals which today aie either extinct (as the pi e-hjstoiic elephant, and a peouluit genus, ut ihuiooeios) or xvh ch now occur in bouthern lands (as the h ppopotaimis and leopaid).
Human beings lived in small giuups (‘‘primitive hordes”). The hrst implements used by man ueie lough-ch^ppca stones. People obtained their food in common by gulh. nng snails insects, fiuit and edible roots. The hunting of small animals was still a casual pursuil . Because of the warm climate man had no need for the protection of special shelters or clothing.
Gradually the climate hardened and grew still more humid. Large glaciers formed in the north, and moved down the mountains. The luxuriant forests receded farther south, and the warm-climate animals either went south with them, or vanished completely. Vast areas were under ice.
Man however remained and adapted himself to the harsher climatic conditions inasmuch as he had learned the use of fire. At first he learned how to keep up a fire, and then how to obtain it by rubbing dry sticks together and by striking sparks out of stone. Fire kept man warm, protected him against wild beasts, and allowed him to eat his meat and fish cooked.
The earliest squatting places of man in our country are those discov- ered in the Caucasus (near Sukhumi) and in the Crimea. A large number of split animal bones and rude stone implements have been found in oaves not far from Simferopol. These were the dwellings of primitive hunters who used natural caves as protection against beasts and as shelter in time of bad weather.
When the Glacial Age was at its height, a large cap of ice covered the European territory of our country, extending to the Middle Don and the Southern Dnieper (almost to Dniepropetrovsk). The ice cap over Siberia was less considerable.
The beginning of the first millennium B.C. witnessed the birth of a class society in the southern mountains of Transcaucasia and in Asia Minor. The iron ploughshare and the iron ax brought about the decline of ^he primitive commimity system.
This blanket of ice cjovered our land for many tens of thousands of years. The glaciers melted slowly and the ice gradually receded to the north, leaving behind it ridges of boulders.
At first the land freed from the glaciers was covered with tundra. Torrents of thawing ice out channels into the soil and formed the liver systems. The abundance of moisture stimulated the rapid growth of grass and forests. The plains, woods, riverbanks, lake shores, etc., became the abode of large animals — ^the mammoth and rhinoceros, as well as the reindeer and other specimens of the northern and Arctic animal world, Man’s most dangerous enemies — the cave lion, cave bear and cave hyena— inhabited the hills and caves. Man followed the retreating glaciers to the north.
The Primitive Community
Equipped only with the wooden club, the wooden spear and the crudest stone implements man was unable to combat the ri- gorous conditions of nature and the wild beasts singlehanded.
Danger dogged him at every step. Only by helping each other could men protect themselves against the attacks of beasts and obtain the food they needed. This co-opeiation was especially necessary when hunting big game like the mammoth, rhinoceros, the wild bull and other beasts. In appearance the mammoth resembled the elephant, but was much larger and stronger. The mammoth chief means o£ defence were his enormous upcurving tusks-
The mammoth was a herbivorous animal and dangerous only when being pursued. To capture such a strong beast people had to set traps or to lie in wait for their quarry near watering places or steep cli&.
Collective life led to the formation of the primitive commumty. Everything, with the exception of some insignificant articles, be- longed to the community; private property did not yet exist. In the primitive community there were no rich and poor, no exploitation of man by man. Productive forces were very poorly developed.
People learned to make mud-huts and hovels as a shelter from the cold. Not long ago the remains of such a dwelling place were discov- ered on the Don, near the village of Gagarino. The bottom of t e hut was a shallow, oval pit the sides of which were lined with bould^ and large bones, to which poles were affixed, joined together at e top and forming a roof covered with twigs and hides. The bones ^ ^ mammoth, rhinoceros, bull and various small animals were found scattered inside the hut. Ornaments were also discovered there — the teeth of small beasts of prey, shells, and several carved bone figures of women. With the development of Soviet archeology as many as 200 habitats of ancient human society have been discovered on Soviet land, They are scattered in various places in the southern half of the European territory, in the Altai Mountains and in Western and l^astem Siberia, and are evidence of the profound antiquity of human society in our country.
The Matriarchal Clan
Origin of the Matriarchal Clan
Origin of the Matriarchal Clan, As the climate changed, the vast glaciers vanished. They remained only in the extreme north and on mountain peaks. Gradually the conditions of nature became more like what they are today. The animal world changed; many large beasts, such as the mammoth and the cave lion, became extinct. Man*s struggle for existence was considerably mitigated.
The primitive community had had no definite social organization and readily disintegrated. On the other hand, the existence of a common economy called for a more stable and permanent social organization.
In the course of many thousands of years people handed down from generation to generation acquired labour habits. They learned to make implements of various sizes and shape from flint and bone, such as axes, hammers, knives, celts, picks, spear points, etc. They started polishing the surfaces of the stone implements, making them easier to handle. People learned to sharpen and pierce stones and fix them onto handles. Of great importance was the appearance of the bow and arrow which enabled the hunter to kill his quarry from afar.
His new production technique enabled man to rise to a higher stage of human civilization, that of barbarism. Man began to make earthenware, which was necessary for storing water, especially in dry regions. At ‘first, the utensils were made of wood, twigs and skins. Then, to make them more durable, the walls of the wooden vessels were lined with clay. Still later the entire vessel was made of clay alone. Finally, the potter's wheel appeared, and with it pottery pro- duction. The “plaiting of baskets from twigs and rushes anticipated the weaving of the fibre of wild plants. This was the beginning of textile production. Coarse, hand- woven fabric w^as used for clothing, bags, and the like, !Man’s vocations became more intricate and diverse. He began to use nets woven of fibre for fishing. His chief hunting weapons were the spear, the harpoon, and the bow and arrow. Dming their excavations archeologists sometimes find the bones of large beasts .of prey with flint arrowheads deeply imbedded in them. At first women gathered fmit and berries; then they began planting grain, tubers and edible roots. For this purpose a plot of'fertile land, usually in a river valley, was loosened by means of a pointed stick — ^the hoo. Barley, millet and wheat were sown. In this way arose the primitive form of hoe agriculture.
Primitive agriculture, which was carried on chiefly by the women, provided mankind with a more stable economic basis. Gradually, in the course of centuries, primitive people began to revere woman as the s^rmbol of fertility. Realizing the importance of maternity, they also honoured woman as the ancestral Mother. And woman, as the Mother, tiller of the soil, and guardian of the collective life of the group, became head of the primitive matriarchal clan.
When a man took a wife, he went to live with her clan, where he was subordinate to his wife’s mother. At clan meetings, woman, the Mother, was in command, and members of the clan honoured only their female ancestors. For the murder of or insult to one of their kin, the entire clan sought revenge. Inter-olan blood feuds beeamo endless wars. For purposes of war several clans Joined to form tribes. Clans consisted of several hundred people, and were united chiefly for work. A tribe combined a number of clans comprising several thousand people, who primarily formed a military group. At tribal meabings the armed people — ^men and women— elected leaders and elders, and decided questions of war and peace. Women were also tribal chieftains.
The men, who were hunters, tamed wild animals. This laid the foundation for animal herding. The flrst domestic animal was the dog. In northern regions man tamed the reindeer.
Habitations of Clan Communities
Many dwelling places of clan communities have been found all over our country, from the shores of the Black Sea and the valleys of the Transcaucasian Mountains to the Far North, and from Byelorussia to Eastern Siberia. Tais material has enabled scientists to determine how people lived in that remote epoch
In the forest belt people lived along riverbanks and lake shores. Each settlement belonged to a single clan and consisted of a few hovels. The dwellers ’ chief occupation was fishing, and to somo extent hunting. In some places elan settlements were located in g/oups, a fact that points to the rise of a tribal union of clans.
In the south, where the country consisted of mixed forest and steppeland, and especially in the fertile river valleys, the chief occu- pation of the population was tilling the ground with the hoe. As an example of a primitive agricultural society we have the Tripolye civilization, relics of which were first discovered near the village of Tripolye (not far from Kiev). Numerous settlements of the Tripolye civilization have been found on Ukrainian territory, west of the Dnie- per; they are said to be about 6,000 years old. Settlements were located on high banks or on the slopes of ravines at the bottom of which streams flowed. The site selected for a dwelling was spread with clay which was baked hard with the help of bonfires. The walls were built of piles and sticks coated with clay. The result was a fairly spacious dwelling with several heai*ths inside. These crudely constructed houses accommodated up to a hundred and more people. The people planted wheat, barley and millet not far from their place of abode. Wooden flint-tipped hoes were used to turn up the soil. The grain was ground between large stone slabs.
A large number of clay statuettes of animals have been found; a magical power was presumably ascribed to these statuettes which were supposed to protect the domestic herd and help it to multiply. Pictures of domestic animals are also to be found on vessels.
Occasionally articles made of copper are found in the villages of the Tripolyo civilization. Little casting moulds have been unearthed, pointing to the fact that some of these articles were made at the place whore they were found. The frequent occurrence of metallic objects coincides with the period when the matriarchal clan system began to decline.
The Patriarchal Clan
The Development of Herding
The domestication of wild animals was of gieat importance in the life of the clan communities. Possessing domestic animals, people had a constant supply of food and were no longer dependent on the outcome of their hunt, which was not always a success. The taming of dogs and reindeer (in the north) was followed by the dom^ stication of otb r animals such as cattle, goats, sheep, swine and horses. Gradually herding became the chief pursuit of the community- At first the cattle lived all year by grazing near the set- tlement. Later the people began to make hay as fodder for the winter; in the north thin leafy twigs were dried and shredded for this purpose. During the winter domestic animals lived in the same houses with the people. Later special sheds were put up for the animals. Large herds of cattle could not remain in one place for a great length of time. People therefore began to migrate with their cattle in search of fresh pasturage. Thus, nomad herding originated in the vast steppe land- Dairy farming, and the making of cheese and butter appeared with the development of cattle raising. Man learned to treat the wool of animals and to spin thread from it; then he began to make warm fabrics which were a good protection against the cold. Later the weav- ing loom was invented.
The breeding of domestic animals enabled man to use them in turning up the soil. This led to the appearance of the first tilling implement —the wooden plough. The first primitive plough was probably a tree limb with a bent, pointed bough or rhizome.
Origin of the Patriarchal Clan
Herding was the chief occupation of the man. It greatly enhanced his importance in the community. Man, the livestock breeder, replaced woman in agriculture: he tilled the land with the aid of animals (the bull, deer and horse) and freed woman from heavy physical labour with the hoe or plough. By using draft animals, man transformed hoe agriculture into plough farming. Kinship began to be traced from the male line, and no longer from the female -The matriarchal clan, which had existed heretofore, disappeared, and was replaced by the patriarchal clan, that is, a union of relatives who originated from a common male ancestor.
It became the established custom for a man’s children to inherit their father’s property, and this led to the accumulation of wealth in the family. Rich families began to withdraw from the clan. This accelerated the disintegration of the primitive community system.
Development of Copper and Bronze Age Culture
The development of the patriarchal clan was coeval with the period when stone imple- ments began to give way to copper and bronze tools. Native copper was worked in the cold state. However, implements made of pure copper were too soft, they easily bent and soon got blunt. The dis- covery of bronze, a copper and tin alloy, was of great importance in improving the quality of metal implements. Bronze melts at a lower temperature than copper. This facilitated the smelting and manu- facture of bronze implements. The use of bronze, which is much harder than copper, permitted of a considerable improvement in tools and weapons, with the result that man’s labour became more productive and his weapons stronger.
The most ancient copper articles found on the territory of the U.S.S.R. date back to 3,000 B.C. They were originally introduced from southern and eastern lands. Local production came into being no later than 2,000 B.C, The mountains of the Caucasus, Central Asia, the Altai and the Urals became seats of the Bronze Age civili- zation. From here the use of bronze implements spread to the steppe and forest regions.
In early times, when himting was man’s chief occupation, life in the different primitive communities was practically unvaried. Later occupations became more diversified. In forest localities which abounded in wild animals, hunting was still an impoi-tant pursuit. Near rivers and lakes people turned chiefly to fishing, while in fertile river valleys they tilled the soil. The grassy steppe served as pasturage for their herds.
The inhabitants of the European forest belts and the vast wooded areas of Siberia remained preeminently hunters and fishermen. They lived in small villages far removed from each other. The primitive community system still prevailed there.
In the grassy plains of Southern Siberia, Central Asia and the Black Sea region, herding became the basic occupation. Agriculture predominated in the fertile valleys. Here the disintegration of the primitive community proceeded more rapidly. Communities of hus- bandmen and herders developed more quickly than communities of hunters. Sea steppes, which, when excavated, revealed human skeletons dyed a red colour. During burial, the dead body was covered with ochre or minium (red lead), which later settled in the bones. The dead man’s weapons and various household chattels were placed beside him. Sometimes the skeletons of a man and a woman were found together in the same burial mound. It is to be presumed that' when a man, the head of a family, died, his wife was killed and buried with him. The barrows reveal hat there were rich and poor burials, and testify to the incidence of inequality in property status. An example of an especially lavish burial— that of a clan or a tribal chief —is the tumulus discovered near the city of Maikop. The mound was about 30 feet high. The main section of the sepulchre contained a skeleton which had been coloured a bright red with minium. The deceased was dressed in clothing ornamented with golden images of bulls, rings, rosettes, and also with gold, cornelian and turquoise beads, and other small objects. Gold and silver vessels lay beside him. A canopy had been erected above the body, and was supported on gold and silver tubular piles decorated with solid gold and silver figures of bulls. The grave contained two other skeletons in special sections; the chieftain’s nearest relatives had to die with him. The Bronze Age flourished during the second millennium and the beginning of the first milleimium B C. in the mountains of the Cau- casus, Transcaucasia and the Altai. Ancient mines from which ore was obtained for the local production of bronze, have been discovered in many places.
Beginning of the Iron Age
Iron objects appeared on the territory .of the U.S.S.R. at the end of the second millennium B.C. At first iron was used to ornament bronze articles. In tbe first half of the first millennium B.C. the production of iron implements had already originated in various places, and these articles began to replace bronze weapons and tools. By the middle of the first millennium B.C, iron had firmly established itself in the life of the population of our country. It increased the productivity of labour tremendously, especially in agriculture and the crafts. “Iron made possible agriculture on a larger scale and the clearing of extensive forest tracts for cultivation; it gave the ciaftsman a tool of such hardness and sharpness that no stone, no other known metal, could withstand it/’*
The beginning of the first millennium B.C. witnessed the birth of a class society in the southern mountains of Transcaucasia and in Asia Minor. The iron ploughshare and the iron ax brought about the decline of ^he primitive commimity system.
Earliest States on the Territory of Our Country
Earliest Slaveowning States in the Caucasus and Central Asia
Basis of Slavery
In the primitive community oppression did not exist. But production, too, was in an embryonic state. With the develop- ment of herding, agriculture and domestic crafts, men were able to produce more than was necessary for their own subsistence This led to the accumulation of stocks and the bartering of products among the clan communities. With the development of private family owner- ship of the means of production, individual families also engasred in inter-family barter. Such barter further stimulated production, which could no longer be maintained by the labour power of a single family or clan.
Wars furnished a new source of labour power: prisoners of war were no longer killed, but were converted into slaves. War was now waged for the sake of capturing prisoners no less than for that of plun- der. Wars still further increased property inequality. The rich could now enslave not only people of alien tribes, but also their own tribesmen and clansmen. Thus arose a division of society into classes: a class of slaveowners and a class of slaves. The slaveowner considered his slaves Ms absolute property, just as he did any other article that belonged to Mm. He could sell, buy and kill Ms slave just as he did his cattle. A slave had no property of his own. His labour was exten- sively employed in the economy. The condition of slaves was a very wretched one, yet compared to the primitive community, the system of slavery was a progressive stage.
Formation of the Slaveowning State
The state came into being with the development of property and class inequality. It was essential to the propertied class as a means of preserving amassed riches and maintaining its power over the slaves and the indigent population. The body politic arose on the ruins of the primitive community system.
With the appearance of property inequality, clan and tribal chief- tains came to be elected from among the rich families. Wars of plunder enriched these chieftains still further and made them more powerful; with them their military retinues also enriched themselves. These retinues helped to make the rule of the chiefs hereditary. A special armed force, one which replaced the former tribal volunteer levy, was required to keep the slaves and the poor in subjection. Popular justice was replaced by a new court of law, one which served the in- terests of the ruling minority. In the clan, society had been governed according to traditional customs. Laws that protected the interests of the slaveowners appeared in the slaveowning state. A state power unknown under the primitive community system was formed in this manner.
Ancient states expanded by subjugating weaker neighbouring tribes. Such multi-tribal states were unstable since they were founded not on economic ties but on the power of the conqueror. They therefore united or fell apart according to the success or failure of one or another military leader or ruler.
Ancient Transcaucasian States
The first slaveowning state to appear on the territory of our country originated in Transcaucasia near Assyria. In the middle of the second millennium B,C. the moun- tainous land in the region of the triple lakps, Van, Sevan and Urmiya, and the upper reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and their tributaries, was occupied by small tribal unions. The Assyrian kings undertook frequent campaigns against them. This country of the triple lakes was named XJrartu (Urardhu) by the Assyrian kings.
In the beginning of the first millennium B.C. the small princi- palities of Urartu united under the supremacy of the stronger tribes. The united tribes, called Chaldeans —after the name of their god, Chaldu (Khaldu) —formed a kingdom headed by powerful rulers, who not only effectively repelled the attacks of the Assyrians, but themselves launched campaigns against them. A capital w hich was well protected in the south by the Iranian Mountain Range was built on the shore of Lake Van (near the present city of Van). During the 9th-8th centuries before our era the dominions of Urartu expanded tremendously.
To commemorate their victories the kings of Urartu left cunei- form inscriptions on rocks and cliffs, which were sometimes located in very inaccessible places. These writings, telling of important events in the history of Urartu, have been deciphered with great difficulty by Russian and foreign scientists.
The kingdom of Urartu attained its maximum size and power in the middle of the 8th century B.G. In the north the Chaldeans seized the valley of the Araxes River and went as far as the Great Caucasian Mountain Range. During their successful campaigns against their neighbours, the Chaldeans destroyed settlements and forts, carried off rich spoils and herds, and either slew the inhabitants or captured and made them slaves. King Argishti, in an inscription engraved on a cliff at Van, records the massacre and enslaving of over 64,000 people effected by him in a single campaign. Thousands of slaves dug canals, were employed in economy, and built impregnable castles on high cliffs on the domains belonging to the king of Urartu and his lords. The buildings were erected without the use of mortar, merely by pressing stones tightly against each other. Spacious dwellings were also hewn out of stone cliffs. This demanded a tremendous expenditure of labour. The intricate water supply and irrigation systems were amazing engineering feats. The canal wnioh supplied drinking water to the capital, Van, remained in use for over two thousand years. Grain and grape vines were cultivated in the irrigated regions and river valleys. Livestock breeding was of great economic importance. The Chaldeans were noted for their excellent bronze weapons and other bronze articles. Urartu was a state of slaveowners, the popu- lation being divided into freemen and slaves. The richest slaveowners were the king and his chief courtiers.
At the end of the 8th century B.C. the power of Urartu began noticeably to wane. Nomads from the north pressed the Chaldeans hard. The Assyrian empire on the Tigris grew strong again. Sargon, the Assyrian king, routed the troops of the' Urartu ruler, destroyed his capital, and carried off tremendous booty. Sargon carved the following inscription on a cliff as a record of his victory: ‘‘When the king of Urartu learned of the defeat of his troops, his heart quivered with fear, as the heart of a bird fleeing from an eagle.”
In the middle of the 6th century B.C. the Persian kingdom lying southeast of Urartu grew in power. The Chaldean tribes were weak- ened by their struggle against it. Their union under the rule of the Urartu kings had begxm to disintegrate. The very name, Chaldean, fell into disuse; Urartu was retained in the name Mt. Ararat.
New tribal unions were formed on the former territory of Urartu in the 6lh century B.C., which later developed into two nations— the Georgians and Armenians, The ancient Aimenians lived on the land around Lake Van. The Karthveli (Karthli) and other kindred tribes who lived in the valleys of the Araxes and Kura rivers and the adjacent mountainous regions formed the Georgian people. At the end of the 6th century B.C, Ai menia was compelled to submit to the rule of the Persian, king, Darius I Hystaspes, Darius has left a lengthy inscription about his conquests, in which he describes how the Armenians rose up in rebellion against him, and how this rebellion was crushed only after five bloody engagements. Armenia had to pay heavy tribute to the Persian king.
Ancient Peoples of Central Asia
In the first millennium B.C. the vast steppes of Central Asia were inhabited by numerous nomad tribes of berdfcmen. According to the Greeks, these people were noted for their warlike spirit and bravery, 'All their weapons— arrows, spears, swords, axes — ^were made exclusively of copper and bronze. Women en- joyed great freedom and even took command in time of war.
In the fertile river valleys the population engaged in agriculture. Among the agricultural people the clan system had already begun to disintegrate. Husbandry was carried on by a large patriarciial family which also included the slaves. Slave labour was used for the build- ing of artificial reservoirs and canals, which were of great impor- tance in arid areas. The most important agricultural regions were Khoresm (Khwarizm) along the lower reaches of the Amu Darya, and Sogdiana on the Zeravshan River. Caravan routes crossed Central Asia, connecting the Caspian coun- tries with Eastern Asia. The towns situated along these routes plied an active trade. The largest of these towns was Marakanda (now called Samarkand), the principal city of Sogdiana.
Campaign of Alexander the Great in Central Asia
In the 4th cen- tury B.C. Greece and Persia contended for world supremacy Alexander, king of Macedonia, invaded Asia Minor, Iraq and Persia. He dreamed of conquering India. He defeated the army of the last Pensian king, Darius III, and in the spring of the year 329 B.C. crossed the Hindu Kush Mountains and descended to the Central Asiatic plain, attracted by its natural resources and large population.
The inhabitants of Sogdiana desperately resisted the Macedonians. Taking advantage of Alexander ’s absence— he had set off for Syr Darya with the bulk of his forces— the rebellious population, led by Spitamen, massacred the Macedonian garrisons in the towns. Alexander the Great hastily returned to Sogdiana and devastatedl he land wantonly. However, in spite of their fearful losses, the people continued to resist. Spitamen, with detachments of horsemen, made unexpected sallies against the Macedonians and kept them in a state of constant alarm. After a protracted struggle, the Macedonians succeeded in routing Spitamen, who then retired to the steppes with the nomads who had been his allies. The nomads, however, fearing the Macedonians^ ven- geance murdered Spitamen and sent his head to Alexander. Thus did this outstanding leader of the Sogdians meet his end.
Having completed the conquest of Central Asia Alexander the Great marched against India. He died in the year 323 B.C., while he was preparing for new conquests.
Following the death of Alexander the Great his empire, which con- sisted of a large number of conquered lands in no way united among themselves, fell apart. Several independent states, headed by the de- scendants of Macedonian generals, were formed on the territory con- quered by Alexander. Greek (Hellenic) culture began to penetrate into the East after its conquest by Alexander. Greek warriors paved the way for merchants and craftsmen. Commerce between the Eastern coimtries and Greece increased. Greek art considerably influenced the art of the Eastern peoples. For this reason the Eastern states formed as a result of Alexander the Great ’s conquests are called "Hellenic.”
The state of the Seleucids (named after one of Alexander’s gen- erals, Seleucus) was founded in Syria. It subjugated Transcaucasia including Georgia and Armenia, and part of Central Asia including Sogdiana. Gradually the population of these lands threw off the yoke^ of the Seleucid state.
In the 3rd century B.C., Bactria became an independent state. Bactria (the territory of modern Tajikistan) was a flourishing slave- owning state at that period, and at various times included separate parts of Sogdiana, Ferghana, ELazahhstau, Afghanistan and Northwestern India.
Bactria maintained intercourse with Siberia, which supplied gold to Central Asia, and with the Urals, where metal was mined. It also had ties with China, to which coun- try a so-called “silk route” had beenlaid. The Baotrian kingdom reached the zenith of its develop- ment in the 2nd century B.C.
Armenia under Tigranes II
Af- ter the destruction of the Seleucid state by the Romans in the year 190 B.C. the Armenians rebelled against the Syrians and formed an independent slaveowning kingdom with its own dynasty of rulers, Armenia was at its greatest during the 1st century B.C, under Tigranes 11, who crushed the might of the neighbour- ing Parthian king in Asia Minor, Persia and Turkmenia, Following this victory Tigranes 11 called himself the ‘“king of kings” and even declared himself a god. He established a magnificent Eastern court at which he gave refuge to Greek philosophers and writers who had fled from Roman oppression. During his campaigns Tigranes II captured large numbers of Greeks, Jews and Arabs, and settled them in his towns. With the help of these settlers he tried to develop the crafts and trade,
Tigranes 11 governed the country with the help of the rich slave- owners, Slaves cultivated the lands belonging to the king, the temples and the rich nobility. Tigranes 11 had a large, well-organized army. If necessary he raised a popular levy of slaveowners and their people. The army was organized on the Roman system.
Georgia and Albania. Georgia, which comprised two large coun- tries — ^Iberia and Colchis — was situated north of Armenia. Colchis was the name of a country bordering on the eastern extremity of the Black Sea famous for its auriferous sands and silver mines. East of Colchis was Iberia. The population inhabiting its mountainous regions engaged in herding and preserved the clan system. Both agriculture and horti- culture were developed in the plains. Slavery was introduced here in the 1st centiuy B.C.
Albania was located on the western shore of the Caspian Sea. The mountainous regions and lowlands of Albania were inhabited by numerous small tribes, which were ruled by their respective petty princes. These tribes often attacked their neighbours, the Iberians (Georgians) and Armenians. Later they united under the supremacy of the strongest tribe, the Albanians. Subse- quently the descendants of the people of ancient Albania were incorporated into the Azerbaijan nation.
Peoples of the Northern Black Sea Region
Scythians
The people occupying the steppeland from the Volga to the Dniester in the 8th-3rd centuries B.O, consisted of various tribes including cultivators and nomad herdsmen, who bore the common name of Scythians.
We find descriptions of the life of the Scythian nom- ads in the accounts of Greek writers. All the proper- ty a Scythian possessed was contained in a four-wheeled or six-wheeled nomad kibitha — o, waggon with a felt tilt drawn by two or three yoke of oxen. Each hihi'ha was
a sort of little felt home in which the women and children lived. The
Scythians roamed with their herds of horses, sheep and cattle, remaining
in a given spot as long as there was sufficient pasturage for their cattle.
Then they would leave in search of pasture land. Among the masses
of nomads was a rich ruling nobility which possessed large herds that
were tended by slaves.
The Scythians were remarkable for their martial spirit and power of endurance, for their daring, and their cruelty to the enemy. They made wine-cups from the skulls of the people they killed, and quivers from their skin. A brave warrior was accorded the greatest honour. The Scythians held annual feasts at which only those who had slain one or ynore of the enemy were permitted to take a draught of wine from the common goblet.
Eveiy tribe had its king who was vested with great power. When a king died, his body was placed on a cart which was drawn throughout the entire land. The inhabitants who met the body of the king had to ex- press profound grief: they cut their hair short, cut off part of an ear. scratched their faces, pierced their left hand with arrows. Kings were buried in huge barrows. With them were laid their arms, precious gold and silver vessels, and a large number of horses. Their wives and ser- vants were also killed and buried with them.
Scythian tombs, some of which rise to a height of 30-35 feet are extant in the south of our country. Many of them have been excavated and a large number of interesting objects found in them are now on display in our museums.
In the large Chertomlyk barrow (not far from the city of Nikopol) on the Dnieper) a wonderful silver vase was discovered, with a frieze showing scenes of nomad life and Scythians breaking in wild mares. One section depicts two horses grazing freely in the steppe, in another scene some Scythians are having a hard time holding down a wild horse they have captured; in a third, three Scythians are trying to thi’ow a horse to the groimd. Then there is a picture of the horse after it had been tamed; a stooping Scythian is hobbling its forelegs.
Of no les interest is a gold vase found in a barrow near Kerch (on the Kul-ObaHill). One of the scenes pictures a sea ed Scythian,evident- ly a chief, listening to a tale or a warrior’s report. The chief’s long hair is tied with a headband. His clothing consists of a short kaftan con* hned by a belt, and loose, Turkish-like trousers. The chief is leaning on a long spear with both hands. A warrior is kneeling before the king. Another picture ou the vase shows a, Scythian fitting a string to his bow. Some other Scythian is treat- ing the tooth of a third person. Still another picture portrays a Scythian bandaging someone’s dis- eased or injured leg. Several of the Scythians are wearing tall pointed hoods on their heads. All of them have quivers of arrows and cases for bows slung at their side.
A golden comb, which appar- ently belonged to some Scythian king, was found in one of the bar- rows (Solokha). The upper part of the comb has a scene on it picturing a combat between three warriors: two foot soldiers (one of whom is un- doubtedly a Scythian) are attack- ing a Greek horseman. Thus has an episode of the Scythian people’s struggle for independence from the Greek enslavers been preserved for
history.
Greek Colonization of the Black Sea Coast
Greek slaveowners
went to the Black Sea region in quest of slaves, and were also lured to
that tenitoiy by its riches .They had
heard that the Scythians possessed
large herds of cattle and a great
amount of grain, and also that there
was gold in the Caucasus. Accounts
of the Black Sea region have been
preserved in Greek legends about
the golden lieeoe,the adventures of
Odysseus and others .The first Greeks
to visit these shore? were fisher-
men and tradesmen who bartered
with the local inhabitants. Begin-
ning with the 7th century B.C.
permanent Gi'eek colonies sprang
up on the shores of the Black Sea.
On the estuiry of the Southern
Bug and Dnieper arose the colony of
Olvia; not far from modern Sevas-
topol was KhersoneS; and on the Scjrthian fitting a bow-string,
southeastern shore of the Crimea — Teodosia and Panticapaeum (now Keroli). The city of Tanais was built at the mouth of the Don by the Sea of Azov; Greek colonies also arose
on the Caucasian coast.
The centre of each Greek colony was a city surrounded by a stone wall. This wall protected the Greek colonists from attack by the hostile population. Within the city wall were dwellings, stores and various public buildings, such as the temples and baths. Among these structures were some splendid woiks of Greek architecture, ornamented with marble columns and statues.
Trade with Greece, with Eastern lands and the peoples of Eastern Euiope was of gieat importance for the Greek colonies on the shores of the Black Sea. Vessels sailing for Greece were loaded with grain, slaves, furs and fish, while Greece exported weapons, fabrics, various utensils of clay and glass, costly ornaments and articles of luxury, and;tvine. Part of these imported goods went to satisfy the needs of the upper class of the local Greek population; part was exchanged for
f uin and other products supplied by the population of the northern^ lack Sea coast. Later the Greek cities developed their own crafts/ Many of the articles found in the Scythian barrows were made in the workshops of the Black Sea colonies. The free Greek population in the colonies, as in Greece itself, met at ^'popular assemblies” to discuss various questions and to elect their functionaries. The entire adminis- tration was in the hands of the rich slaveowners and merchants. Every city-colony consti- tuted a separate state. One such city, Panticapaeum, ruled a considerable teintory , the so-called Bosporus king- dom. It was governed both by Greek and Scythian slave- owners, whose power was passed by inheiitance from father to son.
At the end of the 3rd century B.C, the condition of the Greek colonies along the Black Sea shore deteriorated. Tribes of nomads, Sarmatae, who were kin to the Scythians appeared on the Caspian steppes. Harassed by the Sar- matae, some of the Scythians , and other nomads moved westward and reached the Danube; others went to the Crimea and occupied its northern steppes.
The Scythians who remained were assimilated by the Sarmatae and other tribes. The Greek cities found increasing difficulty in repulsing the attacks of the nomads.
The Scythians who settled in the Crimea during the 2nd cen- tury B.O. often attacked Kher- sones and the Bosporus kingdom. At this time a Pontic kingdom was formed in Asia Minor, on the southern shore of the Black Sea.
Eiersones, which was not strong enough to defend itself, concluded a treaty with the king of Pontus, by which it was to receive help.
Slave Revolt in the Crimea
At the end of the 2nd contury B. C. the Scythian slaves in the Bosporus kingdom rose in revolt. A slave of the Bosporus king, named Saumaeus, slew the king and headed the uprising. The revolt was crushed by Diophantus, a general of King Mith- ridates VI of Pontus, who had come to Elhersones to defend it against the Scythians. He captured Sanmacus and sent him to Mithridates in Asia Minor, As a sign of their gratitude for the help rendered against the Scythians, the rulers of Khersones erected a bronze statue of Diophan- tus in the acropolis of the city near the altar of tlieir most revered goddess. An inscription telling of the services and victories of Diophantus was carved on the marble pedestal. The in- scription was found among the ruins of Khersones,
The uprising of the slaves in the Crimea was not an iso- lated instance. Similar mass rebellions of slaves occurred in the 2nd and Ist centuries B. C. in many other slaveown- mg states — in Asia Minor,
Greece, Italy, on the Island of Sicily and other places.
These rebellions portended the end of the slaveowning
system.
Roman Conquests in the Black Sea Region
During the 1st century B. C. Roman dominions rapidly spread eastward. In order to conquer Asia Minor Rome had to destroy the kingdoms of Pontus and Armenia. The struggle between Rome and King Mithridates VI of Pontus lasted almost 18 years. Finally, the Roman legions indicted a serious defeat on Mi hridatos. Roman slaveowners invaded the domains of Tigranes II. They sacked the rich capital of Armenia (the city of Tigra- nocerta on the Tigris River) . The people rose in defence of their land and inflicted a series of defeats upon the Romans. Other legions under Pom- pey were then sent against Tigranes II. Georgians, Medes and other peoples joined the Armenians against the Romans. Pompey took advan- tage of dissension among the Armenian nobility and forced Tigranes II to conclude peace. The Armenian king was named the ‘'friend and ally of the Roman people,” a title which signified the subordination of Armenia to Rome. Subsequently the Romans subjugated a considerable part of Georgia.
During the 1st century B.C. the Romans established themselves firmly in the Black Sea region. The kings of Bosporus became the vassals of the Roman emperors and submissively executed all their or- ders. Roman legions were quartered in Khersones and other Greek cities of the Crimea and the Caucasus. Roman fortresses with towers from which the approach of enemy vessels could be observed, were built along the shore of the Black Sea.
The kings of Bosporus began to use the names of Roman emperors and to wear Roman clothmg. They received their insignia of royalty from Rome: the sceptre with an image of the emperor and the royal crown. Throughout the century-long existence of the Greek colonies, the descendants of the former colonists intermingled with the local popu- lation. Alien people of various tribes made their home in the Black Sea towns and became local citizens. In the Crimea, too, there was a min- gling of different peoples and cultures.
With the decline of the Roman empire, its influence in the Black Sea countries decreased still further. By the 3rd century A. D. the Ro- man fortresses in the Crimea and along the Caucasian shore became deso- lated. The former Greek cities became independent once again. A new imion of tribes, known as the Goths, was formed on the southern steppes of the Black Sea region in the 3rd century. This union also included the eastern Germans, who had fonnerly inhabited the lower reaches of the Vistula. Towards the middle of the 3rd century the Goths began to invade Roman dominions beyond the Danube. At the same time Goth pirates plundered the Caucasian and Asia Minor coasts of the Black Sea and penetrated to the Aegean Sea, burning Greek towns. In the 4th century the Goths were severely defeated by the Romans.
The attack of the Goths upon Rome’s eastern possessions marked the hegiiming of the struggle of various East European tribes against the Romans. During the same period a struggle was being waged in Western Europe between tlie Romans and the German tribes. The attacks of the “barbarians” (non-Romans) hastened the downfall of the slaveowning Roman empire.
Nomads of Asia (from the 3rd century B.C. to the 8th century A.D.)
The vast steppes of Southern Siberia and Central Asia were inhabit- ed by various tribes of nomads that later formed the Turkic and Mongo- lian peoples. Several centuries before our era the nomads living north of China formed a large tribal union. The Chinese called the nomads belonging to this union Huns. The Chinese waged an arduous strug- gle against the Huns, which lasted for centuries. The nomads made sudden raids on China’s northern territories, sacked the towns, ruined the harvest and carried off the population. When a large Chinese army was rallied, the nomads returned to the steppe and dispersed over its boundless expanses.
In order to defend their frontiers the Chinese, as far back as the 3rd century B.C., constructed solid stone fortifications which became known as the “Great Wall of China.” Gradually Chinese infiueuce made itself felt among the nomads. The Hun chief assumed the title of “bom of heavens and the earth, the chosen of the sun and the moon.” The Hun princes sent their sons to serve at the court of the Chi- nese emperor.
The nomad ruling caste adopted Chinese customs and Chinese clothing .A Soviet expedition toNorthern Mongolia, headed by P.R. Koz- lov, which explored the exceedingly rich barrows of the Hun rulers, discovered chariots, Chinese silks, a magnificent rug picturing a winged animal tearing an elk apart, precious objects, parasols whicb were symbols of high honour, and other objects.
The great Hun state decayed in the 1st century B.C. A large num- ber of Huns moved westward. New tribes formerly under the domina- tion of the Huns now came to the fore in the steppes of Asia.
Invasion of Eastern Europe by the Nomads
When the Hun state collapsed in Mongolia, some of the tribes moved westward in their attempt to escape the Chinese. Their descendants after intermingling with other peoples in the course of their roamings, appeared in Eastern Europe in the 4th century A.D. Contemporaries of the Huns called them "the fiercest warriors.” Besides the Mongolian Huns, the Hun kingdom included the native population of Central Asia and the northern part of the Black Sea region.
The Huns defeated the Goths and drove them west. The main Hun horde stopped between the Danube and the Tisia. Eor a biief space of time there was a strong Hun state in this locality, the king of which was Attila. After his death in 453, the Hun kingdom broke up: some of the Huns settled on the right bank of the Danube and mixed with the local population; others returned to their native haunts in the Black Sea steppes, where they were ethnically assimilated by the local population.
The movement of the Huns west of the Volga along the northern shores of the Black Sea stimulated the migration of other tribes aa well. Close upon the heels of the Huns, the Bulgars came to the Caspian steppes. But the Bulgars, too, were not long able to withstand the pressure of other nomads. The Bulgarian tribal union broke up into several parts. Some of these settled on the Volga (in the Bulgarian kingdom); others reached the Balkans, where they intermingled with the local Yugoslavio population, to whom it gave its ethnic name — Bulgar.
Turkic Khanate
A group of tribes, known as the Turkic khanate, arose in Mongolia in the 6th century A.D. The ruler of this state was called a kaghan, A large number of nomad and, to some extent, agricuD tuxal tribes were under the rule of this khanate. The ruling tribes un- der the leadership of their khan constantly raided their neighbours and spreadtheirpower over a vast territory. The rich and the nobles com- manded the warrior detachments and governed the subjugated tribes. The bulk of the nomad population lived in separate clan communities.
Tombstones of Turkic khans, hearing engraved inscriptions of remarkable campaigns and outstanding events, have been preserved in the valley of the Orkhon Hiver.
The Turkomans of the khanate were hostile to the Turkic Kirghiz (Khakass) who inhabited the upper reaches of the Yenisei Hiver and the Altai Mountains. One of the inscriptions tells how a Turkic khan mounted his white stallion and set off with his troops against the Kirghiz. He threw one Kirghiz off his horse. Then with a spear in his hand, he rushed into the ranks of the enemy, "While doing so he dug his spurs into his white horse so violently, that he broke the horse ’s ribs. The Kirghiz khan was killed and the people submitted to the power of the Turkic khan.
The Turkic state in Mongolia and Central Asia collapsed in the 8th century A.D. After the fall of the Turkic khanate, the Kirghiz (Khakass), who had as many as 80,000 warriors and a large popula- tion proved to be the strongest people.
And so throughout many centuries the vast lands of Southern Siberia and Central Asia saw the continuous rise and fall of one or another tribal union. The nomads in their search for better pasturage and plunder, traversed a large section of the Central Asiatic steppes. Part of the nomads settled in the new places; olhers continued fur- ther west. They were drawn to those regions by the fertile, grassy plains which spread out like a heavy green blanket northwest of the Caspian Sea.
Early Feudal States in Transcaucasia
The struggle Between Rome and Persia (Iran) for Armenia and Georgia
Rome ceased to exist as a slaveowming empire in the 4th- oth centuries A.D. The peoples of Europe and Asia, including those of Parthia and Persia, rose against her. Persia subjugated Parthia, Albania (Azerbaijan) and a considerable part of Georgia and Armenia. Only a small pait of Western Armenia and Western Georgia remained under Roman power. At the end of the 4th century the Roman empire fell apart and was divided into two empires: the Eastern and the West- ern. The Eastern Roman empire (Byzantium) continued its struggle against Persia for possession of Armenia and Georgia.
The Bfrih of Feudalism in Armenia and Georgia
About the middle of the 1st century A. D. the Arsacid dynasty was established in Armenia. With great solemnity the Roman Emperor, Kero, re- ceived an Armenian embassy and personally placed a croum upon the head of the Armenian king. It was approximately in the 4th century A.D., when kings of the Arsaeid dynasty were in power, that feudal relations originated in Armenia. Slave labour was not very productive and even became unprofitable with the development of agriculture and the crafts and impiovemenis in working tools. It was therefore superseded by the labour of feudal subjects. Serfs who lived on the lands of their feudal loids had their own little farms and the necessary implements. They tilled the land of the feudal lord and fulfilled other services for him. The lord could no longer kill bis serf with impunity, as he had killed his slave, but he still retained the right to buy and sell sei-fs. Under serfdom the peasant was interested, to a certain degree, in husbandry as a means of livelihood and to pay his lord a tax in kind, that is, with the products of his own harvest. The big landowners forced the peasants to do all the work on their estates and to render all manner of service. Every rich feudal lord had his own castle and troops. The feudal nobility seized the most important posts. The great feudal lords formed the king’s court, and attended state ceremonies at which they occupied places according to seniority.
At the end of the 3rd century A. D. the Armenian king and nobility adopted Christianity from Byzantium, and it became the national religion of Armenia. Byzantium supported the Christian church, using it to strengthen her influence. The church contributed to the final establishment of feudalism in Armenia, though ancient pagan beliefs persisted for a long time among the peasant population.
In the Byzantine part of Armenia the power of the king was de- stroyed at the end of the 4th century, and the country was ruled by By- zantine officials appointed by the emperor. Similarly the rule of the king in that part of Armenia which was under Persian sway soon came to an end. With the termination of the king’s rule the power of the large landowners was still further augmented.
Mesrob Mashtots, a monk, born of a peasant family, perfected the Armenian alphabet in the early part of the 6th century. This marked the beginning of an Armenian literature; instruction in the schools was carried on in the native language; youths were sent to Egypt and Byzantium to perfect their knowledge of the sciences. An exten- sive literature, both original and translated, appeared.
A kingdom was formed in Western Georgia on the territory of ancient Colchis in the 4th century A.B, This land was inhabited by ancient Georgian tribes of Lazis, whence the Romans and Greeks derived their name for the land — Lazica. The centre of this land was the fertile valley of Rion, which was covered with vineyards and orchards. This valley was also the site of a considerable number of towns, including Kutaisi, which engaged in commerce. After a long struggle with Persia, Lazica remained under Byzantine rule. The Eastern Georgian lands formed part of another kingdom, Karthli (ancient Iberia). In the beginning of the 5th century the king of Kar- thli became a vassal of Persia. As eveiywhere else, the development of feudal relations in Georgia enhanced the power of the landowning nobility, which tried to limit the king’s power. Christianity began to penetrate into Georgia via the cities along the Black Sea shore. With the aid of By^iantium it became firmly established as the state religion of Karthli in the middle of the 4th century, and in Lazica in the beginning of the 6th century. Christianity strengthened the cultural ties between Georgia and Byzantium. Translations of reli- gious writings appeared simultaneously with translations of Greek philosophical and historical works. This stimidated the growth of Georgian literature. The peoples of Transcaucasia did nob cease their struggle for liberation. At the end of the 5th century the Karthlian king, Vakhtang, who was called the "Wolfes Head” because of the emblem in the form of a wolf’s head on his helmet, fought against Persia. During one of the engagements he was mortally wounded. After his death the Persian feudal lords assumed power. The country was then ruled by a Persian satrap who settled in Tbilisi.
The Struggle of the Peoples of Transcaucasia Against Persian and Byzantine Domination
Byzantine and Persian domination in Georgia, Armenia and Albania (Azerbaijan) was accompanied by the terrible oppression and devastation of these lands. The population was brought to the point of despair by intolerable tribute and com- pulsory services. The conquerors conscripted the Armenian and Geor- gian youth into their armies. These conditions led to frequent bloody popular uprisings in Georgia, Armenia and Albania (Azerbaijan). The rebellions were notably powerful when the Georgians and Arme- nians joined forces against the common enemy. Pilled with hatred for their enslavers, these peoples won many a victory over numerous and better armed enemy detachments. While the people fought heroic* ally and staunchly for the liberation of their country, the rich feudal lords often turned traitors and went over to the camp of their country’s enemies. This made it easier for Persia and Byzantium to crush the uprisings of the people.
Struggle of the People of Transcaucasia against the Arabs
Persia’s rule in Armenia and Georgia lasted until the 7th century, when the Arabs, soon after reducing the Persian empire, conquered Transcaucasia and Central Asia. In 642 they seized the capital of Armenia, Dvin, and within a few years conquered all of Armenia and Eastern Georgia. In the 9th-10th centuries there was a consider- able number of rich cities in Ti*anscaucasia — ^Tbilisi (Tihis), Derbent, and others, which carried on trade and the crafts and maintained intercourse with Eastern Europe. Tbilisi became the residence of the Ai'abian emir. The country was ruled by his ostihans — governors. With the arrival of the Arabs the Moslem faith spread among the people of Transcaucasia.
The peasants of Transcaucasia fiequently rose in revolt against their Arabian conquerors, who were ruining the land with their exat*- tions and turning the local population into slaves and serfs, A big uprising of peasants, craftsmen, and slaves occurred in the first half of the 9th century in Azerbaijan, under the leadership of the gallant chieftain Babek. Babek was orphaned w^hen still a diild. After his father’s death, when he was only 10 years old, the boy was turned over to a rich herdsman, for whom he worked as a shepherd. Later he became a camel driver. This enabled him to study the life of the Azerbaijan people at first hand. The sufferings of these people, oppressed by heavy taxes and other exactions, aroused in Babek a feel- ing oi irreconcilable hatred for the oppressors and enslavers, especial- ly for the Arabian rule. Babek, who was only 18 years old at that time, joined a popular uprising and soon became its leader. Binding protection in the inaccessible, high mountain regions, Babek fought tenaciously against the Arabs. The rebels won several victories over powerful Arabian detachments.
It was only after long years of struggle that the Arabs succeeded in occupying the chief insurgent areas. Babek went into hiding in the mountains and from there he continued guerilla warfare against the Arabs and the local feudal lords who had betrayed their own peo- ple. All attempts to surround and capture Babek failed. Then one of the powerful feudal lords, pretending to be a supporter of Babek's, invited him to his castle. There Babek was treacherously seized and turned over to the Arabs. He was executed upon the order of the caliph. The uprising was suppressed. This determined struggle of the Azer- baijan. people for independence lasted over twenty years.
The disintegration of* the Arab caliphate, which began at the end of the 9th century, led to the restoration of the rule of the local wealthy families in Georgia and Armenia.
In 864 Ashod I, who represented one of the most powerful families of Armenia, became king of Armenia and founded a new dynasty of the Bagratids, which ruled until the middle of the 11th century. This dynasty succeeded in uniting a large part of Armenia. The city of Ani (not far from the city of Khrs) became the capital of the Bagra- tids and the trade centre between the East and the West. The city was beautified by a number of splendid buildings which point to the flourishing state of Armenian architecture. Erom his study of the luins of the city of Ani, Academician N. Marr, famous Soviet scientist, retraced the history of the language and cultui’e of ancient Armenia.
After the fall of the Arab caliphate, Georgia broke up into a number of rival independent feudal principalities. It was only in the second half of the 10th century that one of these, the Tao-Klarzhetsk, suc- ceeded in uniting these principalities under the power of the kings of the Georgian Bagratid dynasty.
Armenian Epic, "David of Sasun"
The memory of the age- long struggle of the Armenian people against their conquerors, the Arabs, has come down to ns in a beautiful epic poem, David of Sasun, It tells of the adventures and feats of four generations of Armenian knights. Two brothers built a fortress of huge stones high in the moun- tains which they named Sasun (‘‘Wrath”). Poor people came to Sasun from all parts of the country to seek protection, and it became the bulwark of the people’s struggle against the enemies of their native land. David of Sasun is the central figure of the poem. When ^till a youth he fought against the Arabs, who were oppressing his people. The Arab sovereign set ofF with a large army against Sasun. He had so many warriors that they dried the rivers on their way by each of them merely drinking a mouthful of the water. 1^'et the enemy’s might did not daxmt David. ‘^Brothers and sisters!” David exclaimed. *Tear not the enemy; I shall go and fight the foe for you.” David mounted his father’s miraculous steed and engaged the enemy in battle. He slew the enemy warriors, sparing those, however, who had been for- cibly driven to war. He also slew the Arabian king and liberated the
prisoners:
J break the hoind-s that do enslave^
Return, you all, to friends and those you love so true.
Return, you, home, return and there your life renew.
Nor fees nor tribute do I crave,
David had a son, Mger the Yoimger, who was as puissant and
dauntless as his father. Left an orphan, Mger continued the struggle against the enemies of his native land. The poem tells how IMger stepped up to a cliff and with a powerful blow cleaved it in two. Riding his grandfather’s miraculous steed, he vanished into the fissure, where
he will remain until the old, unjust world is destroyed.
As long as the world is all sm
As long as deceit stands to win,
So long do I 'part with this world.
When all is destroyed and created anew.
When barley grows large as the berries I 7:ncto,
Oh then will I welcome my day!
This place will I leave on that day!
In these words of Mger the Younger the Armenian people expressed their undying dream of a better life. Centuries passed, gener-
ations changed, but the bards, from age to age, continued to sing of the knights of Sasun, of their feats in their struggle against evil, and of their great love for their native land.
Peoples of Central Asia in the Struggle against the Arabs
Conquest of Central Asia by the Arabs
At the time of the Arabian conquest Central Asia consisted of seveial states which were constantly at war with each other. The most important of these was Sogdiana, a land of fertile oases, rich foothills and momi- tain valleys. Its territory was studded with the castles of landowning princelings who were practically independent of each other. The most powerful of them was the ruler of Samarkand, who called himself the “Sogdianian king.” West of Samarkand was Bokhara. Along the lower reaches of the Amu Darya stood Khoresm.
The steppes of Central Asia were populated by nomad tribes. The incursions of Turkic tribes from the east grew more insistent. In the early part of the 8th century they tried to seize the agricultural re- gions of Central Asia and its rich commercial cities, but were repulsed by the Arabs.
In 751 the Arabs routed both the Turkomans and the Chinese on the banks of the Talass River and also conquered Central Asia.
The population of Sogdiana— the Sogdians, remote ancestors of the Tajiks —desperately resisted the Arab aggression. This agricul- tural people found an ally in the nomads, who came to their aid. It took the Arabs about 75 years to completely subjugate the lands between the Amu Darya and S3rr Darya. EJioresm, Sogdiana, Bokhara and other Central Asiatic lands became part of the Arab caliphate in the middle of the 8th century. In most cases the Arabs permitted the local prince- lings to retain their lands and power, but made them their tributaries. The caliph sent his governors to the larger cities and established per- manent Arabian garrisons there.
The prosperous merchants took advantage of the Arabian conquest to trade with the caliphate dominions. Large numbers of Arabs settled in the towns, and noticeably influenced the local culture. The Moslem faith spread among the ruling class of the local population, and the Arabian tongue became the language of literature and of the state.
The agricultural population, who had heretofore rendered various services to their landowners, now also had to pay heavy taxes in kind to the Arabs. This tax sometimes amoxmted to as much as half their crops. The people, i,e,, the peasants, slaves and indigent city popula- tion , were in constant rebellion against the Arab yoke.
The Revolt of Mokanna
The greatest uprising took place in the seventies of the 8th century. It was called the revolt of ‘^the white- shirted,” since the peasants wore simple white clothing. The leader of the popular lebellion was Hashim-ibn Hakim, who was known among the people as Mokanna, which means ‘‘The Veiled.”
Mokanna used to wash clothes in his youth. Later he had command of one of the rebel detachments. He was captured by the Aiabs and spent some years in a dungeon, but succeeded in escaping, and began to prepare a general uprising of the peasants against the Arabs and local landowners. This lebellion lasted about seven years. The insurgents seized and destroyed castles, killed the local landowners who had joined the enemies of their native land, and wiped out the Arabian garri- sons in the towns. To subdue the peasant uprising, the Arabian emirs raised a huge army equipped with battering rams. Several fierce bat- tles took place in which the peasant army suffered heavy defeats. Mokanna was killed, but tbe people did not cease to rebel against the Arabs.
The State of the Samanids
When the Arab caliphate collapsed in Central Asia in the second half of the 9th century, the ancient Tajik state of the Samanids was formed (subsequently the name Tajik was given to the native Sogdiana population), with the city of Bokhara as its capital. The kings of the Samanid dynasty tried to create a strong, centralized power, such as was necessary to combat the nomads. They stubbornly opposed individual petty rulers who tried to establish an independent rule.
Thanks to the power of the Samanids, quiet set in in the Central Asiatic steppes. This stimulated trade and life in the cities. The larg- est cities (Bokhara, Samarkand and Merv) engaged in a lively trade with eastern and western countries, particularly with China and the Volga region.
Literature and learning flourished during the reign of the Samanids, Poets and scholars (philosophers, doctors, geographers, mathemati- cians, historians and others) created an exceedingly rich literature in the Fabian and Persian languages, Numerous valuable manuscripts were stored in the royal library at Bokhara. Each department of science or literature in the library had a special room to itself, and the library had an efficiently-kept catalogue. The famous philosopher, natura- list and doctor, Avicenna (ibn-Sina) lived and worked in Bokhara at the end of the 10th century. Later his works were translated into Latin and became widespread in medieval Europe.
Khazars and Bulgars on the Volga
The Khazar State on the Volga
The Turkic-Khazars formed a strong Elhazar state on the Lower Volga in the 7th century. The K h a - zars woie a semi-nomad people. In the winter they lived in the cities, and in the spring they took their herds out to the steppes to graze. Herding remained their chief occupation, although they also engaged in agriculture, and grapevine cultivation. The Khazars were still divided into clans, each of which possessed its own section of land. However, the clan system had already begun to decay, and an iuduen- tial group of the nobility in the clan came to the fore. The Eihazar langdom was headed by a hhahan or king, who was surrounded by rich dignitaries. The king was rendered divine homage. The country, however, was governed by a lord lieutenant and not by the khakan himself.
The khakan lived in Itil, a populous city situated upon the delta of the Volga. Outside the city walls were wooden dwellings and felt nom- ad tents. The royal brick palace was situated on an island connected witli the bank by a floating bridge. The eastern side of the city was inhabited by visiting merchants —people from Khoresm, Arabs, Greeks, Jews and otheis. The many markets here had a diversity of wares from Gentral Asia, the Caucasus, the Volga region and the Slavonic lands. Itil was an important centre for southeastern trade, and its commer- eial intercourse with EJaoiesm was of especial importance. The duty which the merchants paid the lOtazars constituted one of the chief sources of income for the khakan’s treasury. The regular intercourse with Transcaucasia and Khoresm had an important influence on the constitution of the Khazar state and the everyday life of its population. The Khazar ruling class and the king embraced Judaism.
Another important Khazai city was Sarkel on the Don. Sarkel was built with the help of Byzantine engineers, and was intended to afford protection against irruptions of nomads from the north and the ^ast.
The Khazar state reached the zenith of its power in the 9th century. In the south the Khazars in alliance with Byzantium fought against the Arabs and even went as far as the Araxes River. West of the Volga, the lands between the Caspian and Azov seas belonged to the Khazars, who at one time had subjugated part of the Crimea and imposed trib- ute upon the Slavonic tribes living along the Dnieper and the Oka rivers. In the north their power extended to the middle reaches of the Volga.
The closest neighbours of the Khazars were the Pechenegs, who, in the 9ih century, roamed between the Yaik (the Ural) River and the Volga, BLarassed by other nomad tribes as well as by the Khazars, the Pechenegs moved further west in the second half of the 9th cen- tury, and occupied the steppe between the Don and the Dnieper.
Bulgar State on the Volga and Kama
he union of Bulgar tribes on the Volga broke up as a result of the constant attacks of other nomads. Some of the Bulgars migrated to the Danube. Here they were absorbed by the Slavs, but they handed down their own tribal name to these people. Others went north up the Volga and settled on the lands along the lower reaches of the Kama and the Middle Volga, where they formed an independent state. During this period of migration to the Kama and the Volga, the Bulgars were still nomads. In their new environment they turned to agriculture. According to the accounts of Arab VTiiters, the Bulgars cultivated wheat, barley and millet.
In the Bulgar state the power belonged to the king, the tribal chief- tains and the tribal nobility. Most of the towns were situated near the confluence of the Kama and the Volga. The Arabs called the Bulgar capital on the Volga, the “Great City.” Merchants from the Slav lands, from Transcaucasia, Byzantium and Central Asia, paid annual visits to the capital of Bulgaria. From the Slav lands they brought strong, fitalwart slaves and valuable furs. Arabian merchants came with steel swords, silk and oolton fabrics, and various rich ornaments.
The Bulgars themselves made journeys for furs to the north, which they called the ^^land of gloom.” They bartered with the trappers of that country. The Bulgar merchants would lay out their wares in a pre- arranged spot and then depart. The following day they would find animal skins set out beside their own goods. If the Bulgar merchant was satisfied with the bargain, he took the furs and left his own waies. If not, he would not touch the skins but would take back his own goods. Arabian cultme, which was more highly developed, penetrated Bulgaria with the eastern trade. By the 10th century the ruling class of Bulgars had already takeu over the Moslem faith from the Arabs. In imitation of the Arabs, the Bulgars began to mint their own coins.
In the beginning of the 10th century ibn-FadhIan visited Bulgaria as a member of an Arabian embassy. He left a most interesting descrip- tion of his travels. The Bulgar king met the embassy not far fiom the capital. The envoys were ushered into a large, richly appointed tent, with Armenian rugs spread on the ground. The king sat on a throne covered with Byzantine brocades- On his right hand sat the chiefs of his subject tribes. During the feast the guests were legaled with chimks of meat and drinks made of honey. Ibn-Fadhlan also saw Russian merchants there. They were strong stalwart people. Each of them was armed with a battle-ax, a knife and a sword, with which he never parted.
After the formation of the Bulgar and Elhazar kingdoms, the Volga became a very important trade route between Europe and Asia. Its upper reaches closely approach the Western Dvina, which flows into the Baltic Sea, Thus there was an almost complete river route between the Caspian and the Baltic seas. Where there was a break in the river system, boats were hauled overland by ‘^portage,”
Arabian merchants came in great numbers to trade on the Volga in the 8th-10th centuries. They paid for their purchases with dirhems, small silver Arabian coins, which were current thi’oughout Eastern Europe, including the Baltic states, Scandinavia and even Germany.