Clergy

Orthodox priests during a church service.

Clergy within religions can be considered ministers or representatives of the faith. Usually, but not in all religions. The clergy are organized into a hierarchical structure. Believers view the clergy as either people with extensive knowledge of the faith or as intermediaries between the people and God, though whether they are viewed as intermediaries or simply knowledgeable believers varies from religion to religion.

Depending on the position and function within the faith, the clergy are divided into higher and lower clergy, with representatives of the higher clergy typically revered as God’s representatives on earth (such as the Pope in Catholicism) or as the incarnation of a deity (such as the Dalai Lama of Tibetan Buddhism).

The clergy within class society serve the function of consoling the oppressed, painting a picture of prospects for mitigating their suffering and sacrifice while preserving class domination, reconciling them to dominance and discouraging revolutionary action, thereby undermining revolutionary spirit and resolve.

Typically, the clergy are associated with monotheistic religions, though even within polytheistic religions, the clergy existed in the form of a priesthood. However, these were less centralized structures that could be considered a clergy, as opposed to priests dedicated to individual deities who were more decentralized. The priesthood in antiquity functioned as administrators and enforcers of religious worship. They also held status as a privileged class within the ruling class, as they enabled class domination.

The first instances of a structured clergy are found in the Vedic priesthood of India and the early Christian Church in Jerusalem with the council of elders (presbyters).

Major Religions

Christianity

14th Century Franciscan Monk.

The formation of the Church and the origin of church hierarchy can be traced back to the early Christian communities in Jerusalem, which were organized democratically, though the Church as we know it today did not exist back then. As the number of Christian followers grew, the community became divided between the clergy and the laity (Christians who were not recognized as religious leaders).

Beginning around the mid-2nd century, leadership in Christian communities shifted toward a single bishop in each city, supported by presbyters (elders) and deacons (servants). This shift toward centralized and hierarchical organization arose from a need to consolidate and standardize Christian doctrine in opposition to Gnosticism, which concerned Christian leaders at that time.

Monasticism emerged in the late 3rd century and became an institution by the early 4th century, particularly in Egypt and Syria. This development is linked to Emperor Constantine’s conversion to Christianity and his decision to end Christian persecution within the Roman Empire, which led to Christianity becoming mainstream in the region. This encouraged figures like St. Anthony of Egypt to pioneer the monastic line of Christianity by living as a hermit around 285 CE and later organizing followers.

As bishops gained more followers and status, those of the most influential dioceses (territories or communities under a bishop) emerged as patriarchs and established patriarchates, the first known being the bishops of Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch. The first instance of formal recognition of these patriarchates came through the First Council of Nicaea, which formally recognized Alexandria and Antioch in 325 CE, and Constantinople at the Council of Chalcedon in 451 CE.

As the power and prestige of the patriarch of Rome grew over time, by the 6th century he was recognized as the Rector of the Whole Church, a role that ultimately evolved into the papacy, which originated from the Roman episcopate, with Saint Peter considered the first pope.

Judaism

A rabbi preaching to a group of men.

Unlike Christianity, Judaism doesn’t have a hierarchical structure nor a central authority like the Pope in Catholicism. In Judaism, rabbis (teachers) exist as experts and legal authorities who guide the congregation while serving as interpreters of religious texts and taking on the role of teachers pertaining to the Jewish faith.

A rabbi’s primary role is as a teacher and interpreter of Halakha (Jewish law), the Torah, the Talmud, and other sacred texts. Their presence is technically not required for events such as weddings, funerals, sermons, and other official Jewish ceremonies, since they are not priests or intermediaries. Therefore, any knowledgeable Jew can step in and lead prayer or other Jewish events. Cantors, or Chazzanim, lead the congregation in prayer and musical chanting; however, due to the decentralized nature of the Jewish clergy, the rabbi may fill the role of the cantor whenever the situation requires it.

Judaism underwent a significant and gradual transition over several centuries after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE. The role of the high priest and the priesthood in general ended, as these roles were centered around Temple worship and sacrifice. After this, leadership and authority transitioned from the hierarchical priesthood to decentralized, knowledgeable rabbis. During the Middle Ages and into modern times, rabbinates governed not only the religious but also the political and economic life of the Jewish community. In modern Israel, the rabbinate actively supports the government’s reactionary and genocidal domestic and expansionist foreign policies.

Hinduism

Despite the generally accepted traditions and doctrines of Hinduism, it has never had a coherent or unified dogma, nor any strictly canonical holy scripture, hierarchical church-like organization, or clergy. Hinduism has always been, and continues to be, a vague but commonly agreed-upon set of views and faiths due to the polytheistic nature of the religion.

Within the vague and diverse sects of Hinduism, there are religious leaders whose roles revolve around preserving traditions, maintaining expertise in the scriptures, and catering to community needs such as education or general aid. Most of these religious leaders belong to the Brahmin caste (a hereditary social class called varna).

A pujari / temple priest.

Key types of religious leaders within Hinduism are:

Pujari - Temple priests who perform daily worship called puja and manage the temple’s sacred functions and activities. Their role is to perform rituals and serve as intermediaries between the deities and the believers through offerings, chants, and fire rituals called havan.

Purohit - Domestic and family priests who perform samskaras (ceremonies) for important events such as births, weddings, and funerals. Typically, the Purohit visits the homes of believers to perform these samskaras. They also provide guidance and religious education to individuals, families, and temples. Some Purohits have the duty of maintaining Vahis (genealogical records) of families.

Guru or Acharya - Essentially teachers who educate their shishya (disciples) with religious knowledge and wisdom. The relationship between the shishya and the guru is a fundamental and important aspect of Hinduism, with gurus often being viewed as deities by their shishya. Gurus often lead a specific philosophical school called sampradaya which they pass down guru to guru.

Sannyasi or Sadhu - Ascetic monks who live a monastic life, having renounced worldly existence to pursue the path of moksha (spiritual enlightenment). They take vows of celibacy and poverty. These Sannyasis typically live in mathas (monasteries), though some intentionally remain homeless. Due to their vow of poverty, they rely on begging for food in order to survive.

Islam

Islam excludes any intermediaries between God and man. Sheikhs (religious scholars) and faqihs (experts on Islamic law) have no divine importance linked to them. Unlike the Christian clergy, they have no exclusive right to perform religious rites, nor the right to exile or excommunicate anybody, and they are unable to forgive sins. There is a complete absence of a clerical hierarchy in Islam.

Worship in Islam is completely individual. Even when performed communally in masjids, it is entirely between the individual and God, as is the pilgrimage to Mecca.

A Grand Mufti of the Ottoman Empire.

Key figures include:

Imam - It is a role that can be taken by anybody with sufficient religious knowledge. An imam is the person who leads the communal prayer in a masjid, and the role is taken up spontaneously by any Muslim, though there do exist full-time salaried professional imams, typically in larger mosques. Imams also deliver sermons and provide spiritual and religious guidance to the local community. They are also occasionally invited to weddings and funerals for their religious expertise.

Ulama - These are people who have committed years to studying Islamic law and doctrine in madrasas or hawzas, which includes mastering the Quran, Hadith, Arabic, Fiqh, and Aqidah. After graduating from the madrasas, they typically serve the community by leading prayers, offering guidance and sermons, or becoming a Qadi (Islamic judge). Despite their expertise and knowledge, they do not have any privileges or exclusive power above any regular believer.

Mufti - A mufti is an Islamic scholar who is qualified to give fatwas (legal interpretations). Despite their qualifications, a fatwa is essentially religious advice with some scholarly backing and is not binding. Modern muftis typically advise and offer guidance to the community.

Buddhism

Buddhism has no central governing entity, though it does have a somewhat clerical structure with the Sangha, which consists of monks and nuns, although their titles and roles vary depending on the sect of Buddhism. Traditionally, the core of the Buddhist clergy involves the bhikkhu (monk) and bhikkhuni (nun), whose roles are to live a monastic life under the Vinaya, a code emphasizing celibacy, meditation, study, and the preservation of the Buddha’s teachings.

East Asian Mahāyāna traditions have married clergy members, though they are typically different from the bhikkhu, as they serve a role similar to Christian pastors. They are usually called ministers or priests in English. In contrast, in Vajrayāna or Tibetan Buddhism, a qualified monk who has achieved a notable spiritual awakening is recognized as a lama, the highest of whom is the Dalai Lama, regarded as the reincarnation of Chenrezig or Avalokiteśvara, considered the God of Compassion.

a Buddhist monk from the Ajanta cave temples, India, 5th-6th century.

There is a wide range of Buddhist clergy depending on the sect, i.e.,

Theravāda has the typical monks and nuns who remain strictly celibate and focus on meditation and the study of the scriptures. They commonly live in monasteries and serve as teachers or experts for the upāsakas (laity), typically offering advice and instruction on ethics, meditation, and the scriptures. They also perform ceremonies, funerals, and rituals.

Vajrayāna, similar to Theravāda, has the gelong (monks) and gelongma (nuns). They differ in that Vajrayāna also has Lamas and Ngagpas. Lamas are teachers, non-monastic, and can get married. The term Lama translates to “superior one,” and they often serve as lineage holders. They also typically serve as the heads of monasteries.

Ngagpas are tantric practitioners who may or may not be monastic and are typically specialized in ritual practices, mantras, and meditation. They usually visit households and serve essentially as ritual specialists.