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Federal Republic of Somalia: Difference between revisions

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{{Infobox country|name=Federal Republic of Somalia|native_name=Jamhuuriyadda Federaalka Soomaaliya<br>جمهورية الصومال الفيدرالية|image_flag=Flag of Somalia.svg|largest_city=[[Mogadishu]]|government_type=Federal presidential constitutional republic|leader_title1=President|leader_name1=Hassan Sheikh Mohamud|leader_title2=Prime Minister|leader_name2=Hamza Abdi Barre|image_coat=Somalia COA.svg|capital=[[Mogadishu]]|national_anthem=Anthem: Qolobaa Calankeed
{{Infobox country|name=Federal Republic of Somalia|native_name=Jamhuuriyadda Federaalka Soomaaliya<br>جمهورية الصومال الفيدرالية|image_flag=Flag of Somalia.svg|largest_city=[[Mogadishu]]|government_type=Federal parliamentary constitutional republic|leader_title1=President|leader_name1=[[Hassan Sheikh Mohamud]]|leader_title2=Prime Minister|leader_name2=[[Hamza Abdi Barre]]|image_coat=Somalia COA.svg|capital=[[Mogadishu]]|image_map=Somalia map.svg|map_width=260|map_caption=Light green territory disputed with [[Somaliland]]|official_languages=Somali<br>Arabic|demonym=Somali|area_km2=637,657|population_estimate=18,143,378|population_estimate_year=2023}}
علم أي امة
The '''Federal Republic of Somalia''', also known as '''Somalia''', is a country in [[East Africa]] located in the Horn of Africa. It is bordered by [[Republic of Kenya|Kenya]] to the southwest, [[Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia|Ethiopia]] to the west and [[Republic of Djibouti|Djibouti]] to the northwest as well as having an eastern coast on the [[Indian Ocean]].
"Every nation has its own flag"|image_map=Somalia map.svg|map_width=260|map_caption=Light green territory disputed with [[Somaliland]]|official_languages=Somali<br>Arabic|area_km2=637,657|population_estimate=15,893,219|population_estimate_year=2020}}
'''Somalia''', (Somali: Somaliya), officially the '''Federal Republic of Somalia''', (Somali: Jamhuuriyadda Federaalka Soomaaliya; (Arabic: جمهورية الصومال الفيدرالية), is a country in the Horn of Africa, located in East Africa.
== Geography ==
Somalia is bordered by, Djibouti, Ethiopia, and Kenya, as well as the Gulf of Aden, and the Indian Ocean to the north and east. The capital city of Mogadishu (Somali: Moqdishu), one of the fastest growing cities in Africa, is located in the south of the country.
 
=== Political ===
The Federal Republic of Somalia is divided into six federal states, and 18 regions. In the self-recognized self-governing nation of Somaliland recognizes itself as a fully independent nation, of Somalia with its capital of Hargeisa, with six regions, with their own flag, government, military, police, and passports, etc., which today is unrecognized by the UN (United Nations).
 
At the very tip of the horn, is the federal state of Puntland, made up of three regions, and in 1998 it declared autonomy, but aren't and doesn't claim independence from the Somali state. Disputes over the eastern border of Puntland and Somaliland, as well as Khatumo which wanted independence. The central border with Ethiopia is disputed and not properly demarcated. Furthering complications the region that inhabits the border, in Ethiopia is named, the "Somali Region,"<ref group="lower-alpha">Somali: Deegaanka Soomaalida</ref> primarily inhabited by ethnic Somalis.
 
In general Somalis "generally" refer to this region as "Greater Somalia," which includes areas of historical Somali areas, extending from the southern part of Djibouti, all the way down to Ethiopia to east Kenya. Somalia has the longest coast in Africa, as long as 3,333 km (2,070mi), gives Somalia a perfect place to build deep water ports, some apart of the largest in Africa, like Mogadishu Port, Kismayo in the south, and in Somaliland (Somalia), Berbera Port in the north, is the busiest port in the Gulf of Aden.
 
=== Administrative Divisions ===
 
==== Somali Democratic Republic ====
 
==== Federal Republic of Somalia ====
 
=== Physical ===
The Horn of Africa, which Somalia lies on, is a part of the greater Somali Plate that extends to the Indian Ocean to the east, and the Great African Rift to the west. This fault zone is what created the Gulf of Aden, including the four Yemeni islands off the coast. The passage between the Somali coast and the islands is called the Guardafui channel, which connects to the sub-section of the Indian Ocean, the Somali sea. Somalia's coast is mostly smooth and straight with minimal islands, excluding or including the islands off the sea border with Djibouti with the Sa'ad Ad' din Islands. Further east are the mangrove islands of the famous Alula Lagoon. Inland the country of Somalia can be divided into three main geographic zones. The humid (&) green zone in the south, the dry plateau in the central, as well as the dry mountainous area in the north mostly in the self-proclaimed state of Somaliland. In the mountain region, is the highest peak, Shimbiris, can be seen in the Al-Madow Mountain range, a unique forested range that gathers more precipitation through fog mist and winter rains than any other area, and mountain ranges of the Ogo/Karkaar Mountains that extends all the way towards the end of the horn. Following south the mountains fade and a dry flatter plateau descends like the Nugal Valley, and the Mudug Plain, speckled with perennial rivers, and wadis that dry up seasonally. This is known as the Haud, some of the best graze lands for livestock pastoralist peoples, especially the Hobyo grasslands, and shrublands along the eastern coast. This region ends at the border of the longest river in the country the Shebelle, at about 702 miles long, and a greener, and lush savannah, and forested area of Somalia beings. The Shebelle River dries up and ends, and only in the wet seasons does it continue to flow and connect with the second largest river, the Jubba in the southeast. This all means that Somalia has no inland permanent bodies of water. 
 
==== Wildlife ====
Somalia is both number one in camel livestock population with over 7M, and camel milk production. Somalia has six main national parks, with the fact that camels both originated, and were first domesticated in Somalia, having about ~35% of all the worlds camel population. There is over ~720 species of birds that live in Somalia. Over ~170 mammals, and thousands of plants, like the King Protea, which is the national flower. Especially shrubs like Jasmine Pointettia, Caraway, Cardamum, Myrrh, Acacia, plants, and trees. Somalis have their own version of ostriches, leopards, and other examples like the Pygmy gerbil, Berbera Gerbil, Berbillus Brockmani, Crocidura greenwoodi shrew, Elephant shrew, that are endemic to Somalia only. There are about 230+ species of reptiles in the country. The Nile crocodile finds its home in many of the river bits, with tons of fish and coral species along the coast, the most commonly caught being the Indian Ocean tuna.
 
=== International Relations ===
 
== Demographics ==
 
==== Language ====
Somalia's official languages includes the Somali language, and Arabic as the co-official language, used primarily for religious affairs, etc. Somali is a Cushitic language, from the Afro-Asiatic language family in Africa. A number of writings systems have been attempted to be implemented as the official Somali script, but so far none have been popular enough, which scripts including the Kaddare, Osmanya, and Borama, Hussein Sheikh Ahmed Kaddare, Abdurahman Sheikh Nuur, and Osman Yusuf Kenadid, being spearheads of the inventions of Somali scripts. But majority of Somalis use the Latin alphabet.
 
==== Urbanism ====
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+Most populous cities in Somalia (Somaliland)
!Mogadishu
!Banaadir (State)
!
!1st in Somalia (Excluding Somaliland)
|-
|Hargeisa
|Somaliland (Maroodi Jeex)
|TBD
|(1st in Somaliland) & (2nd including Somalia)
|-
|Burao
|Somaliland (Togdheer)
|TBD
|(3rd Excluding Somaliland) (2nd including Somaliland)
|-
|Bosaso
|Bari (Puntland)
|TBD
|(4th in Somalia)
|}
 
==== Ethnolinguistic Groups ====
{| class="wikitable"
|+Ethnolinguistic Groups in Somalia
|-
!Somali
!
!
!
!
|-
|Isaaq
|
|
|
|
|-
|Darood
|
|
|
|
|-
|Ranhanweyn
|
|
|
|
|-
|Hawiye
|
|
|
|
|-
|Sub-Clans
|
|
|
|
|-
|Bantu
|
|
|
|
|-
|Arabs
|
|
|
|
|}
 
==== Religion ====
Islam is the state religion. Sunni Islam, with branches like Sufism also existing. The government is an "admixture," of civil customary, and Islamic law. Being one of the oldest Islamic nations on earth. <ref name=":5">{{Web citation|author=N/A|newspaper=Ministry of Endowment & Religious {{!}} MERA|title=Ministry of Endowment & Religious {{!}} MERA|url=https://mera.gov.so/|retrieved=6-19-2023}}</ref>


== History ==
== History ==


=== Macrobians ===
=== Colonialization ===
 
In the late 19th century and early 20th century the region of Somalia was partitioned between the [[Imperialism|imperialist]] powers of [[Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)|Italy]], the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland|UK]] and [[French Republic|France]] (the latter's colony of French Somaliland would later become Djibouti). This [[Colonialism|colonization]] spurred on a [[national liberation]] movement led by [[Muḥammad ibn 'Abdallāh Hassan]] which lasted from 1899 to 1920. The struggle against the imperialists forced the British to retreat to the coast in 1910 and in the wake of the [[First World War]] the rebels were given a reprieve, however, this would only last until 1919 with the Somalis being defeated in 1920.<ref name=":0">{{Citation|author=A. M. Khazanov|year=1979|title=The Great Soviet Encyclopedia|title-url=https://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/somalia|chapter=Somalia|section=Historical survey}}</ref>
=== Land of Punt ===


=== Somali Sultanates ===
The colonists seized the best of the land and a large portion of the livestock as well as taxing the native population whilst leaving them in [[poverty]]. The exploitation of the population intensified when the [[Fascism|fascists]] came to power in Italy but in both British and Italian Somaliland the living standards were low and industry was non-existent.<ref name=":0" />


==== The Ethiopian-Adal War (1529–1543) ====
In the [[Second World War]] Somalia was a battleground with the Italians seizing British Somaliland in August 1940 before the British drove the Italians out of Somalia in early 1941. During the war years a number of manufacturing industries sprung up allowing the establishment of a small local [[bourgeoisie]] and [[intelligentsia]] which in turn led to increased agitation for independence. In November 21, 1949 the [[United Nations|UN]] placed Italian Somaliland under international trusteeship but the Italians were still allowed to administrate and oppress the population.<ref name=":0" />


=== Dervish Movement ===
=== Independence ===
The Dervish Movement was a result of early colonizing Europeans specifically the Italians, and the British, who have been at the time, growing and permanently implanting their spheres of influence in the Horn of Africa. To which European powers found success by using the coast for their bases of operation against enemy Somali peoples, and armed groups, which they gained the trust of local Somali clans, and people to further their imperial interests. An Somali Islamic follower of a prominent Sufi Wahhabist Revivalist named Mohamed Salih, influenced a young Somali islamist, named Sayid Mohamed Abdullahi Hassan (Somali: Sayid Maxamed Cabdulle Xasan), born in the British Protectorate of Aden, he soon opened a school in Berbera. His next move was through the Somali interior, gaining followers, preaching against heresy, materialism*, and non-Muslim foreigners. By 1899, he had about 3,000 followers. * Who became known as Dervishes. He then declared jihad against Somalis he viewed as heretics, as well as the European powers. "In the years that followed his forces wages a determined guerilla campaign against other Somali tribes, the Italians, Ethiopians, and the British. 1905 treaty with Italians and the Mullah, to which the British also agreed. The treaty created the territory of Nugal, under Hassan's control as a protectorate, which was a "convenient" buffer state between the sultanates of Hobyo, and Majeerteen, *which were both Italian clients, but in conflict with each other.
On June 26,1961 British Somaliland gained independence and on July 1 Italian Somaliland joined it to form the Somali Republic.<ref name=":0" />
=== Italian & British Somaliland (1884–1960) ===


==== Trust Territory of Somaliland under Italian Administration (1949, 50* – 1960) ====
=== Socialist era (1969–1991) ===
{{Main article|Somali Democratic Republic}}


=== State of Somaliland (26th, June 160, June July 1st, 1960) ===
=== Somali Civil War ===
The [[Somali National Movement]] fought against the socialist government of [[Siad Barre]] and overthrew him in 1991. Secessionists led by the SNM then split northwest Somalia from the rest of the country and formed the [[Republic of Somaliland]].<ref>{{Web citation|date=2023-01-17|title=Protests in breakaway Somaliland call for reunification with Somalia|url=https://peoplesdispatch.org/2023/01/17/protests-in-breakaway-somaliland-call-for-for-reunification-with-somalia/|newspaper=[[Peoples Dispatch]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230127005326/https://peoplesdispatch.org/2023/01/17/protests-in-breakaway-somaliland-call-for-for-reunification-with-somalia/|archive-date=2023-01-27|retrieved=2023-01-29|author=Pavan Kulkarni}}</ref>


=== Somali Republic (1960–1969) ===
The [[United Nations]], led primarily by the [[United States of America|United States]], launched an [[Invasion of Somalia (1992)|invasion of Somalia in 1992]] and [[Invasion of Somalia (1993)|again in 1993]] under the guise of providing relief and humanitarian aid, when it was really killing thousands of Somalis. They sent troops to secure areas with oil fields owned by four Statesian corporations, those being [[Conoco]], [[Amoco]], [[Chevron Corporation|Chevron]], and [[Phillips 66]].<ref>{{Citation|author=William Blum|year=2002|title=Rogue State: A Guide to the World's Only Superpower|chapter=A Concise History of United States Global Interventions,
The Somali Republic, founded in 1960, on July 1st, was the first united Somali state, that was created from both, British Somaliland, and the Italian and UN-Trusteeship, to formally unite both countries.  
1945 to the Present|isbn=9781842772201|publisher=Zed Books Ltd|lg=https://libgen.rs/book/index.php?md5=29EED3C6906FF165E08303B9EAF66B4F|pdf=https://cloudflare-ipfs.com/ipfs/bafykbzacedas5bwprytpzcih6tof3ipede5uzmcvt47tfzwp4cptdau6vmjpy?filename=William%20Blum%20-%20Rogue%20State_%20A%20Guide%20to%20the%20World%27s%20Only%20Superpower-Zed%20Books%20Ltd%20%282002%29.pdf|page=133–134}}</ref>
==== 1969 Somali Revolution ====
==== Somali Youth League (1943 - 1969) ====


=== Somali Democratic Republic (1969–1991) ===
=== Modern era ===
 
In 2006, Somalia reunified under one government after over a decade of [[Somali Civil War]]. [[George W. Bush]] soon overthrew the government of Somalia with support from Ethiopia under [[Meles Zenawi]].<ref>{{News citation|author=Chris Banks|newspaper=[[Liberation News]]|title=U.S. troops sent back to Somalia: behind the Pentagon’s latest aggression|date=2022-05-22|url=https://www.liberationnews.org/u-s-troops-sent-back-to-somalia-behind-the-pentagons-latest-aggression/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220605232529/https://www.liberationnews.org/u-s-troops-sent-back-to-somalia-behind-the-pentagons-latest-aggression/|archive-date=2022-06-05|retrieved=2022-06-20}}</ref>
==== Women in the Somali Democratic Republic ====
"Both the production of manpower and the shaping of young generation depends to a great extent upon the mother. It is therefore a primary condition that in order to aspire rightly in realization of a Somali socialist society, the women should attain equality." - Jaalle Mohamed Siyad Barre 8th, March 1972. 
 
===== Government (Structure, etc. =====
 
==== '''Mohamed Siad Barre''' ====
General Mohamed Siyad, '''(Somali: ''Maxamed Siyad Barre)''''' President of the Republic, was born 1919 in Lugh (Kansa Dere) district on the Juba River in southern Somalia. He grew up in the nomadic interior, intermittently attending Quranic school (religious studies), form the age of ten after his father's death. During the British military administration of Somalia (1942-1950), he joined the police force, receiving an education to secondary-school standard. He reached the rank of chief inspector and was in charge of the Upper Juba region and involved in Somali Youth League politics leading to independence. In 1950, during the Italian trusteeship administration, he was awarded a scholarship to study at a military academy in Italy. After completing his military training, he studied political science and administration, and in 1954 he returned to Somalia as an officer in the security forces. In 1965 he became a regimental commander and in 1966 he became General and Commander of the Army.<ref name=":8">{{Citation|author=Mohamed Siad Barre|year=1976|title=Selected Speeches of the SRSP Secretary General and the Somali Democratic Republic, Jaale Mohamed Siad Barre|title-url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/siad-barre/selected-speeches.pdf|pdf=https://www.marxists.org/archive/siad-barre/selected-speeches.pdf|publisher=The Ministry of Information and National Guidance of the Somali Democratic Republic|trans-lang=English}}</ref>
 
=== Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party (1976 - 1991) ===
 
===== Structure of the Somali Revolutionary Party =====
==== Ogaden War (1977 - 1978) ====
 
==== Somaliland War of Independence (1981 - 1991) ====
 
==== Republic of Somaliland (1991* - Present) * ====
 
=== Somali Civil War (1981, 1988, 1991 (Disputed) – Present ===
==== Somali National Movement ====
 
==== Transitional Federal & National Governments (TNG - TFG) (2000 - 2012) ====
 
==== Transitional National Parliament ====
 
=== Federal Government of Somalia (FGS) ===
 
=== Islamic Courts Union ===
 
==== Al Shabab (2006 - Present) ====
 
=== '''African Union Mission in Somalia''' ('''AMISOM''') & '''African Union Transition Mission in Somalia (ATMIS)''' ===


== References ==
== References ==
Line 173: Line 30:
[[Category:Global south]]
[[Category:Global south]]
[[Category:African countries]]
[[Category:African countries]]
<references />
<ref>{{Web citation|author=N/A|newspaper=Ministry of Planning|title=Ministry of Planning|url=https://mop.gov.so/|retrieved=6-19-2023}}</ref>
<ref>{{Web citation|author=N/A|newspaper=MoICT - Department of Tourism|title=MoICT - Department of Tourism|url=https://tourism.gov.so/|retrieved=6-19-2023}}</ref>
<ref>{{Web citation|author=N/A|newspaper=Home {{!}} Ministry of Finance - Somalia|title=Home {{!}} Ministry of Finance - Somalia|url=https://mof.gov.so/|retrieved=6-19-2023}}</ref>
<ref name=":7">{{Web citation|newspaper=Ministry of Women & Human Rights Development|title=Ministry of Women & Human Rights Development|url=https://mwhrd.gov.so/en/|retrieved=6-19-2023}}</ref>
<ref name=":5" />
<ref>{{Web citation|newspaper=Office of the Prime Minister of Somalia - Federal Republic of Somalia|title=Office of the Prime Minister of Somalia - Federal Republic of Somalia|url=https://opm.gov.so/en/|retrieved=6-19-2023}}</ref>
<ref>{{Web citation|newspaper=Constitution {{!}} Villa Somalia {{!}} Presidency Somalia|title=Constitution {{!}} Villa Somalia {{!}} Presidency Somalia|url=https://villasomalia.gov.so/en/constitution/|retrieved=6-19-2023}}</ref>
<ref>{{Web citation|newspaper=About Somalia {{!}} Villa Somalia {{!}} Presidency Somalia|title=About Somalia {{!}} Villa Somalia {{!}} Presidency Somalia|url=https://villasomalia.gov.so/en/about-somalia/|retrieved=6-19-2023}}</ref>
<ref>{{Web citation|newspaper=MOA {{!}} Ministry of Agriculture & Irrigation|title=MOA {{!}} Ministry of Agriculture & Irrigation|url=https://moa.gov.so/|retrieved=6-19-2023}}</ref>
<ref>{{Web citation|newspaper=MOJCA {{!}} Ministry of Justice and Constitutional Affairs Federal Government of Somalia|title=MOJCA {{!}} Ministry of Justice and Constitutional Affairs Federal Government of Somalia|url=https://www.moca.gov.so/|retrieved=6-19-2023}}</ref>
<ref>{{Web citation|newspaper=Ministry of Foreign Affairs & International Cooperation|title=Ministry of Foreign Affairs & International Cooperation|url=https://www.mfa.gov.so/|retrieved=6-19-2023}}</ref>
<ref>{{Web citation|newspaper=Wasaaraddaa Amniga Gudaha (Ministry of Internal Security)|title=Wasaaraddaa Amniga Gudaha (Ministry of Internal Security)|url=https://mois.gov.so/#|retrieved=6-19-2023}}</ref>
<ref>{{Web citation|newspaper=The Ministry of Interior, Federal Affairs & Reconciliation - Somalia|title=The Ministry of Interior, Federal Affairs & Reconciliation - Somalia|url=https://moifar.gov.so/en/|retrieved=6-19-2023}}</ref>
<ref>{{Web citation|newspaper=Ministry Of Livestock, Forestry and Range|title=Ministry Of Livestock, Forestry and Range|url=https://molfr.gov.so/|retrieved=6-19-2023}}</ref>
<references group="lower-alpha" />

Latest revision as of 16:50, 29 August 2024

Federal Republic of Somalia
Jamhuuriyadda Federaalka Soomaaliya
جمهورية الصومال الفيدرالية
Flag of Federal Republic of Somalia
Flag
Coat of arms of Federal Republic of Somalia
Coat of arms
Light green territory disputed with Somaliland
Light green territory disputed with Somaliland
Capital
and largest city
Mogadishu
Official languagesSomali
Arabic
Demonym(s)Somali
GovernmentFederal parliamentary constitutional republic
• President
Hassan Sheikh Mohamud
• Prime Minister
Hamza Abdi Barre
Area
• Total
637,657 km²
Population
• 2023 estimate
18,143,378

The Federal Republic of Somalia, also known as Somalia, is a country in East Africa located in the Horn of Africa. It is bordered by Kenya to the southwest, Ethiopia to the west and Djibouti to the northwest as well as having an eastern coast on the Indian Ocean.

History[edit | edit source]

Colonialization[edit | edit source]

In the late 19th century and early 20th century the region of Somalia was partitioned between the imperialist powers of Italy, the UK and France (the latter's colony of French Somaliland would later become Djibouti). This colonization spurred on a national liberation movement led by Muḥammad ibn 'Abdallāh Hassan which lasted from 1899 to 1920. The struggle against the imperialists forced the British to retreat to the coast in 1910 and in the wake of the First World War the rebels were given a reprieve, however, this would only last until 1919 with the Somalis being defeated in 1920.[1]

The colonists seized the best of the land and a large portion of the livestock as well as taxing the native population whilst leaving them in poverty. The exploitation of the population intensified when the fascists came to power in Italy but in both British and Italian Somaliland the living standards were low and industry was non-existent.[1]

In the Second World War Somalia was a battleground with the Italians seizing British Somaliland in August 1940 before the British drove the Italians out of Somalia in early 1941. During the war years a number of manufacturing industries sprung up allowing the establishment of a small local bourgeoisie and intelligentsia which in turn led to increased agitation for independence. In November 21, 1949 the UN placed Italian Somaliland under international trusteeship but the Italians were still allowed to administrate and oppress the population.[1]

Independence[edit | edit source]

On June 26,1961 British Somaliland gained independence and on July 1 Italian Somaliland joined it to form the Somali Republic.[1]

Socialist era (1969–1991)[edit | edit source]

See main article: Somali Democratic Republic

Somali Civil War[edit | edit source]

The Somali National Movement fought against the socialist government of Siad Barre and overthrew him in 1991. Secessionists led by the SNM then split northwest Somalia from the rest of the country and formed the Republic of Somaliland.[2]

The United Nations, led primarily by the United States, launched an invasion of Somalia in 1992 and again in 1993 under the guise of providing relief and humanitarian aid, when it was really killing thousands of Somalis. They sent troops to secure areas with oil fields owned by four Statesian corporations, those being Conoco, Amoco, Chevron, and Phillips 66.[3]

Modern era[edit | edit source]

In 2006, Somalia reunified under one government after over a decade of Somali Civil War. George W. Bush soon overthrew the government of Somalia with support from Ethiopia under Meles Zenawi.[4]

References[edit | edit source]

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 A. M. Khazanov (1979). The Great Soviet Encyclopedia: 'Somalia; Historical survey'.
  2. ↑ Pavan Kulkarni (2023-01-17). "Protests in breakaway Somaliland call for reunification with Somalia" Peoples Dispatch. Archived from the original on 2023-01-27. Retrieved 2023-01-29.
  3. ↑ William Blum (2002). Rogue State: A Guide to the World's Only Superpower: 'A Concise History of United States Global Interventions, 1945 to the Present' (pp. 133–134). [PDF] Zed Books Ltd. ISBN 9781842772201 [LG]
  4. ↑ Chris Banks (2022-05-22). "U.S. troops sent back to Somalia: behind the Pentagon’s latest aggression" Liberation News. Archived from the original on 2022-06-05. Retrieved 2022-06-20.
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