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| Haltamti 𒁹𒄬𒆷𒁶𒋾 | |
|---|---|
| 3rd millennium BCE–539 BCE | |
 Location of Haltamti (orange) in 1300 BCE | |
| Capital | Šušen |
| Common languages | Elamite |
| Dominant mode of production | Slavery |
| Government | Monarchy |
| History | |
• Established | 3rd millennium BCE |
• Dissolution | 539 BCE |
Haltamti, also known as Elam, was an ancient kingdom located in modern-day Iran.
History[edit | edit source]
Old period[edit | edit source]
In the third millennium BCE, a union of tribes formed in the valley of the Karkheh and Karun rivers with its capital at Šušen. Other kingdoms formed around the same time at Anšan, Awan, and Kimaš. The Elamite kingdom was centered at the connection of trading routes between Mesopotamia and eastern Iran.[1]
Akkad conquered Elam in the 24th century BCE, and Elam remained under Mesopotamian rule during the Third Dynasty of Ur. In the late 21st century BCE, Elam restored its independence and conquered Ur. In the late 18th century BCE, Kutirnahhunte I invaded and destroyed the city of Akkad.[1]
Middle period[edit | edit source]
In the mid-14th century BCE, the Babylonians conquered Elam and occupied it until the early 12th century BCE. Around 1180 BCE, Šutruknahhunte I drove out the Babylonians and sacked the cities of Kiš, Sippar, and Upî. They stole the stele that ʿAmmurāpi's code was written on. In 1159 BCE, King Kutirnahhunte II invaded Babylon and seized Babylon, Nippur, and Sippar. Elam reached its peak at this time and stretched from the Persian Gulf in the south to the modern city of Hamadan in the north. In the late 12th century BCE, the Babylonians retaliated and destroyed Elam. It took Elam three centuries to recover from the Babylonian invasion.[1]
Neo-Elamite period[edit | edit source]
In the eighth century BCE, Elam supported Babylon in its wars of independence against the Assyrians. In 720 BCE, Humbannikaš of Elam allied with the Chaldean chieftain Mardukaplaiddina to defeat Assyria at the fortress of Der in eastern Babylonia. Ten years later, Šarrukīn II of Assyria invaded and defeated Elam. In 700 BCE, the Assyrian army looted the Elamite cities on the Karkheh river.[1]
In 692 BCE, Babylon rebelled against Assyria. The Elamites, led by Humbannumena III, allied with the Persians and other tribes of the Zagros Mountains to support the rebellion and defeated Assyria at the Battle of Ḫalulê, but their losses were too severe to continue pursuing the Assyrians. Šamaššumaukin led another Babylonian rebellion with Elamite support starting in 652 BCE. The Assyrians defeated Elam and captured Šušen after ten years of war. They beheaded king Teumman of Elam in front of his army. In 651 BCE, Aššurbāniapli of Assyria organized a coup against the Elamite king Humbannikaš II to prevent the Elamites from supporting Babylon's rebellion.[1]
Babylon took control of Elam around 596 BCE. In the mid-6th century BCE, the Persians conquered Elam, and it permanently lost its independence.[1]
Religion[edit | edit source]
Šušen was the center of the Elamite religion. The supreme god was Pinikir, who was considered the mother of the gods. Inšušinak was the patron of Šušen and god of the underworld, and Nahhunte was the sun god. All gods were considered to have supernatural powers that they used to protect the king. The supreme priest, who led all other priests, was influential in the king's court.[1]
References[edit | edit source]
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 Grigory Bongard-Levin, Boris Piotrovsky (1988). Ancient Civilisations of East and West. https://archive.org/details/ancientciveastwest/mode/1up.