Brunei Darussalam

Brunei Darussalam Negara Brunei Darussalam
Flag Coat of arms
Capital and largest city	Bandar Seri Begawan
Official languages	Malay
Demonym(s)	Bruneian
Government	Unitary Islamic absolute monarchy
• Sultan and Prime Minister	Hassanal Bolkiah
Area
• Total	5,765 km²
Population
• 2020 estimate	460,345

Brunei, officially Brunei Darussalam, is an absolute monarchy in Southeast Asia which shares the island of Borneo with Malaysia and Indonesia, with the former splitting the country into two. Brunei is a member of ASEAN and the Commonwealth of Nations.

History

Precolonization

Pre-Sultanate Era

The single oldest known instance of archaeological evidence of human activity within Brunei is the Kota Batu archaeological site, where they found the remains of a thriving trade port city and settlement dating to the 6th to 7th centuries CE, with artifacts like Chinese coins and porcelain from the Tang, Song, and Yuan dynasties. Kota Batu is Malay for “Stone Fort.” Despite the majority of the settlement being made of wood and bamboo, there were some stone remnants remaining. Remnants of the local cultures are diverse, including ancient timber and stone houses, old covered walkways, and the man-made island of Pulau Terindak.

The site was continually occupied over centuries. Chinese records from 977 CE, specifically the Chu-fan-chi trade record, named Brunei “Pu-ni” and mentioned it was protected by timber walls, while European records from 1521 CE mention a city built on water with a stone-walled palace. In the 15th and 16th centuries, the area now had royal mausoleums, specifically the tombs of two sultans: Sultan Sharif Ali and Sultan Bolkiah.

Limau Manis was a secondary port, or feeder, to Kota Batu in the pre-sultanate era. There are thousands of Chinese porcelain shards from both the Song and Yuan dynasties at the archaeological site, and carbon-dating places them around the 10th century to the mid-14th century CE. Limau Manis was a bustling, large riverine trading port. There were also local earthenware, iron slags, and beads.

Over 50,000 ceramic shards from China during the Song and Yuan dynasties have been collected from the site, with fewer from the Ming and Qing periods, as well as from Thailand (Thai Sukhothai wares) and Vietnam (Annam wares). Due to the narrow Sungai Limau Manis river channel, there is a prevailing theory that large ships at that time anchored in the Brunei Bay area, and smaller local ships transported goods from there to the Limau Manis port.

Brunei was a vassal state under the Srivijaya Empire, an Indonesian maritime empire that was the center and spreader of Buddhism in the region. Srivijaya was based on the island of Sumatra. It did not have direct control over Brunei and mainly expected it to pay tribute as a tributary state, as Srivijaya controlled the Strait of Malacca and the Strait of Sunda. Chinese records at this time call “Po-Ni” (Brunei) a wealthy kingdom with a fleet of warships to protect its trade. Despite the proximity to the Srivijaya Empire, Buddhism did not spread much in Brunei at that time.

Due to Srivijaya being the center of Buddhism, specifically Mahayana Buddhism, and due to the vassalage of Brunei, this spread to Brunei on a small scale, blending with local traditions in small pockets. Srivijaya began facing constant conflicts, including a major invasion in 1025 CE by the Chola dynasty under Raja Raja Chola I, who captured the Srivijaya king, Sangrama Vijayottunggavarman.

Srivijaya lost its influence over Brunei around the 13th century, due to the Chola invasion and shifting trade routes, which sealed the already fragile state of the empire. Brunei’s sovereignty lasted only for a short period, as in the 14th century it became a vassal of the Majapahit Empire according to the Nagarakretagama, a 14th-century Javanese text.

In 1363 CE, Brunei’s ruler Awang Alak Betatar changed his name to Muhammad Shah and converted to Islam while establishing himself as the first sultan of Brunei and subsequently the Sultanate. Reasons for the conversion may have included contact with Muslim traders and his marriage to a Johor princess.

Sultanate Period

Brunei’s Sovereignty

According to archaeological and Portuguese historical accounts, the Sultanate was fully institutionalized later, around the 15th–16th century. However, during the early 14th century, the Sulu Kingdom rebelled and launched major attacks on Kota Batu, the capital of Brunei at that time, looting its treasury, gold, and sacred pearls. Brunei was left weakened by the assault from the Sulu Kingdom and had to be rescued by a Majapahit fleet, which repelled the Sulu forces. In the initial stages of the establishment of the Sultanate of Brunei, a Chinese report from this period describes Brunei as poor and totally controlled by Majapahit.

Brunei’s independence from the Majapahit was a gradual process in the late 14th century, driven primarily by the decline of Majapahit and the intervention of Ming Dynasty China. Throughout the late 14th century, the Majapahit Empire began to wane. After the powerful prime minister Gajah Mada died in 1364 and King Hayam Wuruk died in 1389, the empire entered a period of internal conflict, with a major civil war known as the Regreg War severely draining the empire’s financial resources and weakening its ability to enforce control.

Sultan Muhammad Shah, understanding the weakening of the Majapahit Empire, began to seek alternative protection, namely from the Ming Dynasty. The largest move toward this goal occurred when Sultan Abdul Majid traveled to Nanjing, China, with a large delegation in 1408 to formalize a tributary relationship and seek the Emperor’s recognition. Sultan Abdul Majid died in China around October 1408 and was buried there. The Yongle Emperor respected the dying wishes of the sultan and sent a powerful mission to the Majapahit Empire, ordering them to stop demanding tribute from Brunei.

As Ming China was more powerful than the weakened Majapahit, the latter accepted the demands of the Yongle Emperor. With Majapahit threatened, Brunei was now able to operate freely as a sovereign state around the year 1408.

Golden Age

Due to Brunei’s location, it became a profitable and safe port along the maritime Silk Road, attracting merchants from China, the Malay Archipelago, and India. Brunei controlled valuable resources such as camphor, spices, pearls, and gold. The reign of the fourth sultan, Sharif Ali, was the period during which the Islamic nature of the sultanate was spread and firmly solidified through the building of the first mosque in Brunei and the creation of the royal emblem (the Panji-Panji).

Sharif Ali constructed the stone ramparts of Kota Batu, reportedly hiring Chinese builders to assist in the construction, according to the Silsilah Raja-Raja Brunei. This may indicate a potential link between the Ming Dynasty and Brunei. Under Sharif Ali, legal developments were established, such as the Hukum Kanun Brunei, which integrated Islamic law into the national legal framework. He spent much of his reign participating in the maritime Silk Road trade network and deepening Islamic influence within the country, including adding Darussalam to the country’s name.

Sultan Bolkiah ascended the throne, and the reign of Sultan Bolkiah is seen as the peak of Brunei’s golden age. During his rule, he expanded the territory of the sultanate and was known as Nakhoda Ragam (“The Singing Admiral”) due to his naval conquests. He extended Brunei’s control over the coast of Borneo (Sarawak and Sabah, now under Malaysia), as well as Manila and the Sulu Archipelago, both of which are under the Philippines today.

Tomé Pires was a Portuguese apothecary and colonial diplomat, and in his work Suma Oriental he wrote about Bruneian merchant ships being a vital part of maritime trade within the Southeast Asian archipelago. These trade networks extended from the southern Philippines to major trade centers in the region, including the port of Guangzhou in China. According to Pires, Bruneian merchants utilized junk (zong/zhong) ships in their long-distance trade; junk ships are a type of Chinese vessel with a flat bottom.

Imperial Decline

Death of Bolkiah

Following the death of Sultan Bolkiah and the abdication of his son, the empire experienced a decline from its imperial peak. His son, Sultan Abdul Kahar known as Raja Siripada and Marhum Keramat began his six-year reign between 1524 and 1530, and his short rule marked the continuation of the golden age of the Bruneian Sultanate.

During his brief period of rule in Brunei, he expanded the already large territories of the sultanate through naval expeditions. The sultanate’s strength during this period is best exemplified by the arrival of the Portuguese, who sought to trade and establish influence. A Portuguese diplomat, Gonçalo Pereira, visited in 1530 but failed in his efforts, as Brunei was sufficiently self-sufficient. Sultan Abdul Kahar also developed a new form of coinage known as pitis, replacing the previously used Chinese coins.

Sultan Abdul Kahar developed a form of cult of personality within Brunei, as he was highly regarded by the people for his character and qualities. He was described as a religious man possessing berkeramat (supernatural abilities), which is why he came to be called Marhum Keramat (“The Saint”) after his death. For unknown reasons, he abdicated the throne around 1530 in favor of his nephew, Saiful Rijal. After his abdication, he took the title of Paduka Seri Begawan Sultan Abdul Kahar and served as co-regent alongside his nephew, Sultan Saiful Rijal.

Following his abdication, he remained an influential figure, serving as co-regent or co-ruler alongside his nephew. He played a crucial advisory role, which is best exemplified during the Castilian War, when the Spanish invaded the Bruneian capital. The Bruneian leadership was forced to flee to Jerudong, where they planned and executed their counteroffensive.

In which they succeeded.

Castilian War

The Castilian War, which began in 1578 and ended the same year, was a notable conflict fought between the Spanish Empire and the Sultanate of Brunei. It began as a Spanish justification using religious and territorial disputes in the Philippines, which Brunei considered to be part of its territory.

In essence, it began with the Spanish colonial governor of the Philippines demanding that Brunei cease any Islamic influence within the Philippines, with the goal of spreading Christianity through Spanish missionaries. Because Imperial Spain claimed Manila as their colonial capital, they directly intruded on Brunei’s territory, which included Bruneian satellite states. The conflict was further complicated when the brother of the Sultan of Brunei, betrayed the sultan by defecting to the Spanish and offering Brunei to them in exchange for being allowed to seize the throne from his brother.

It started in March of 1578, when Francisco de Sande, the colonial governor, led an expedition from Manila consisting of 40 galleons, 400 colonizers, and 1,500 Filipinos. They eventually besieged the Bruneian capital at the time, Kota Batu. Due to the betrayal and the sudden attack, the Bruneians were outgunned by Spanish artillery. Sultan Saiful Rijal and his uncle, Paduka Seri Begawan Sultan Abdul Kahar, fled to Jerudong and began planning their counteroffensive.

Jerudong served as their temporary headquarters. The primary architect of the counteroffensive was the Sultan’s brother, Pengiran Bendahara Sakam, who is said to have rallied approximately 1,000 Bruneian soldiers. The Bruneian warriors leveraged their local knowledge of the geography to attack Spanish positions, including poisoning the Spanish water supplies in the capital. Despite being outnumbered and outgunned, they effectively utilized guerrilla warfare.

The Bruneian forces used hit-and-run tactics to keep the Spanish confined to the capital while poisoning their supplies and water, and preventing them from accessing the inland resources on which they relied. As a result of the poisoning and restricted access to food and supplies, the Spanish experienced a catastrophic outbreak of cholera and dysentery, which decimated their colonial forces.

On June 26, 1578, after only 72 days of occupying the capital, the Spanish fled back to Manila. Before retreating, they burned the grand fifth-tier mosque and looted 170 Bruneian artillery pieces.

While Western sources typically describe the disease as a spontaneous and random outbreak that forced the Spanish to flee, historically it was a combination of Bruneian poisoning of the Spanish and the sustained pressure from Bruneian resistance that ensured Brunei’s victory.

Victory & End of Expansion

Following the Spanish retreat from the capital, another Spanish fleet appeared off Brunei’s shores in 1579, however, unlike the previous year, this fleet departed without any hostilities or attempts at intervention. Around this time, Sultan Babullah of Ternate, a sultanate in present-day Indonesia, made diplomatic decisions to deepen ties between the two sultanates as an anti-colonial alliance against invading European powers.

Despite the Spanish not engaging in any hostilities with Brunei at this time, they were still surveying and charting nearby regions such as Pulangi in the Philippines. The Castilian War ended Brunei’s imperial influence; while the Spanish failed to conquer Brunei, they nonetheless prevented it from regaining its foothold in Luzon (Philippines). As a result, Brunei gradually became more of a city-state rather than an expansionist empire within Indochina.

Brunei was revived beginning with Muhammad Hasan, the ninth sultan of Brunei. Under his rule, Brunei re-acquired many lost territories, such as Sulu (now a province of the Philippines) and Sambas (a province of Indonesia). His reign saw the construction of two square-shaped palaces at Kota Batu, with a fortified city surrounding the palaces and equipped with artillery. He also commissioned the construction of a bridge linking Tanjong Kindana/Chendana to the island of Pulau Chermin.

By the late 1590s, the Spanish sent a formal letter to Brunei requesting the normalization of relations and the resumption of trade, effectively ending two decades of subtle hostility. This also allowed the Spanish to focus on the Spanish–Moro Wars in the Philippines without having to look over their shoulder.

In 1600–1601, the Dutch admiral Olivier van Noort, a colonial imperial agent of the Dutch Republic, visited Brunei and laid the foundation for Dutch, Portuguese, and British involvement in the region, which gradually eroded Brunei’s economic dominance in Indochina. To compound this damage, the Spanish had severed important trade routes through their occupation of Manila. As Brunei was gradually weakened economically by the presence of these European imperial powers, what ultimately sealed its fate was the Bruneian Civil War.

Bruneian Civil War

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LGBT Discrimination

Brunei has some of the worst conditions for LGBT people in the world with Equaldex ranking them the second worst country behind Afghanistan. In 2019 the punishment for homosexual acts was changed from ten years imprisonment to the death penalty for married men, 100 lashes for unmarried men, and ten years imprisonment for women. Despite these human rights violations, Brunei still continues to receive support from imperialist powers who themselves claim to support LGBT rights.