Mongolian People's Republic (1924–1992)

Mongolian People's Republic Бүгд Найрамдах Монгол Ард Улс
1924–1992
Flag Coat of arms
Capital	Ulaanbaatar
Official languages	Mongolian
Dominant mode of production	Socialism
Government	Marxist-Leninist state
History
• People's Revolution	March 1 1921
• People's Republic proclaimed	November 26 1924
• Counterrevolution	March 9 1990
• Current constitution	February 13 1992
Area
• Total	1,564,116 km²
Population
• 1992 estimate	2,318,000
Currency	Tögrög (₮)

The Mongolian People's Republic was a socialist state that existed from 1924 to 1992. Under socialism, the life expectancy increased and illiteracy was eliminated.

History

Revolution

See main article: Mongolian People's Revolution

Mongolia was feudal society and part of the Qing Dynasty until its collapse in 1911. In 1921, with the support of the Soviet Red Army, the Mongolian Revolutionary Army captured the capital city of Örgöö, which was renamed Ulaanbaatar. The Bogd Khan kept the title of limited monarch but no longer held actual power.^:297–300

Founding

On 1924 June 3, the Politburo of the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party Central Committee created a plan for forming a republican government. After the Third Party Congress in 1924 August, elections to the Grand Hural were held. 77 delegates were elected, including 71 peasants (arat), six former nobles, 44 Party members, and six members of the Revolutionary Youth League. The Hural opened on November 8.^:315–6

On 1924 November 26, the Grand Hural approved Mongolia's first constitution and proclaimed the People's Republic of Mongolia.^:316 It launched a policy of liquidating the aristocracy and clergy, who still controlled 30% of the country's livestock, and recognized the independence of the Tuvan People's Republic in 1925.^:320

The publication Ünen (Mongolian: Үнэн), meaning "truth", was the central organ of the MPRP.

Construction of socialism

In 1925, Soviet troops left Mongolia. At this point, the nobility still controlled 30% of the country's livestock, and there were 700 monasteries with a total of 100,000 lamas. Capitalist companies controlled 60.7% of exports and 77.6% of imports in 1926.^:321–6

In 1925 and 1926, the Grand Hural created a new legal code and abolished the shabinar department^:323 (serfs of the monasteries). In 1926 December, it introduced a national currency, the tögrög, which weakened foreign capital. The Presidium of the Little Hural introduced a progressive tax system that exempted poor peasants from all taxes.^:323

In 1926 September, Mongolia separated the church and state. When the lamas began searching for a reincarnation of the Bogd Khan, the MPRP abolished the institution of chubil khans,^:323–4 the clergy leadership who had been considered "living gods" since medieval times.

Anti-rightist struggle (1924–1928)

The Third Party Congress had exposed Soliin Danzan as a rightist who represented the interests of the comprador bourgeoisie. Later rightist such as Dambadorj and Jadambaa tried to delay the attacks against the feudal nobility and supported foreign companies in Mongolia. They promoted pan-Mongolian nationalism while Jamsaranai Sebeen promoted Lamaism and tried to identify Buddhism with Marxism. Their policies led poor peasants to lose their lands and herds to feudal lords.^:325–6

The Party rejected the rightist line at its Sixth Congress in 1927 September and October and purged the rightists from its Central Committee at its Seventh Congress in late 1928.^:327

Anti-feudal revolution

Between late 1929 and early 1930, over 600 of 729 large estates were confiscated and their livestock were given to poor peasants who owned no or very few cattle. By 1932 April, over 11,000 feudal estates had been redistributed. In 1930 December, Mongolia introduced a state monopoly on foreign trade, with that year capitalist exports and imports at only 26% and 9.8%, respectively. In 1931, the country redrew its administrative divisions.^:328–30

Ultra-leftist deviation (1930–1932)

After the redistribution of land and livestock, peasants formed basic cooperatives. The Eighth Party Congress in 1930 adopted a plan for full collectivization of agriculture. They rapidly formed communes that were poorly organized and lacked labor discipline, leading the country to lose 32% of its 23.5 million livestock by 1932. Extreme anti-religious policies that targeted low-ranking clergy in addition to the nobility, leading to a Lamaist rebellion in western Mongolia that was defeated in 1932. The Central Committee held a meeting in 1932 and purged Shijee, Badrakh, and other ultra-leftists.^:330–3

New Course

The Party adopted the New Course in 1932 and allowed peasants to leave collective farms if they wanted to. Prime Minister Peljidiin Genden distorted this decision and dissolved voluntary peasant cooperatives. A new law allowed monasteries to keep their property but banned them from excessively exploiting peasants. In 1933, income tax was replaced by a tax based on the number of livestock owned that further lowered taxes for peasants and made poor peasants completely exempt from paying taxes.^:337–8

Monasteries were mostly empty by 1938 after the lower-ranking lamas abandoned them. Voluntary production associations reemerged, with about 90 active by 1940.^:351–3

Agriculture

The first ten mechanized haymaking stations opened in 1937 and increased to 24 stations in 1938. The area of hay harvested grew from 2,000 hectares in 1924 to 200,000 in 1940. By 1940, state farms and agricultural industry had over 160 tractors and 1,000 mowers.^:352–3

Industry

In 1933, Mongolia opened a mechanical wool-washing factory in Hatkhyl. In 1934 March, Mongolia began industrial production of leather and wool products. The number of industrial workers in 1934 was ten times higher than in 1928. Low-ranking lamas joined the 33 producers' associations that had over 1,000 members. The government began building roads, with car travel increasing twelve times between 1932 and 1934. In 1934, 8,000 of the country's 11,000 industrial and office workers were unionized. In 1937, the Central Committee began competition in state and cooperative enterprises, and the USSR transferred full ownership of mixed enterprises to Mongolia.^:338–41

Livestock

In 1932, Mongolia had three state farms for livestock breeding. The number of livestock increased by 5.5 million between 1934 and 1939. By 1940, the country had 237 veterinary and medical centers and 200,000 heated livestock sheds to protect animals from freezing in the winter.^:351–3

New constitution

In 1940, the Grand Hural formed a committee of 35 members to draft a new constitution. It unanimously approved the constitution in 1940 June. The constitution stated that all natural resources belonged to the state and could not be privately owned. It allowed private property based on personal labor and established full equality for citizens regardless of property status.^:358–9

Second World War

See main article: Second World War

Japanese aggression

After the Japanese invasion of Manchuria, the USSR signed a mutual defense agreement with Mongolia in 1934. Mongolia's military spending grew from 34.7% of the state budget in 1934 to 52.5% in 1938, and the term of military service increased from two to three years. Genden's anti-party group tried to break the alliance between Mongolia and the USSR and falsely accused innocent people such as Jambyn Lkümbe of crimes.^:344–8

In 1935, the Ministry of Internal Affairs discovered a counterrevolutionary conspiracy based in the Yugotszar monastery and involving around 20 total monasteries near the border with Japanese-occupied China. The counterrevolutionaries had a stash of guns and were planning a pro-Japanese uprising. In 1937, the Ministry discovered another Lamaist conspiracy led by Enzonkhambo and Dedkhambo.^:347–8

Due to repeated Japanese border attacks, Mongolia requested Soviet troops to return in 1937. Japanese aggression increased in early 1939, and Japan launched a full invasion on 1939 May 11. The People's Army fought them at the Halkhin River on May 28 and surrounded them with support from the Soviet Red Army in August. Japan lost 60,000 soldiers, 700 planes, and 340 machine guns. A peace treaty signed in Moscow took effect on September 15.^:349–50

The Soviet Union went to war with Japan on 1945 August 8 after defeating Germany, and Mongolia declared war on Japan two days later. Khorloogiin Choibalsan led the Mongolian People's Army into Japanese-occupied Manchuria. Japan stopped fighting on August 23 and officially surrendered on September 2. Mongolia and its allies captured over 594,000 Japanese soldiers and killed or wounded over 80,000.^:376–9

Support for the Soviet Union in Europe

On 1941 June 22, fascist Germany and its satellite states attacked the Soviet Union without declaring war. Following its mutual defense treaty with the USSR, Mongolia reorganized its economy to support the Soviet resistance in early 1942. It sent tens of thousands of sheepskin coats, boots, and gloves to the Red Army. Many workers and peasants donated money, gold, silver, clothing, and food to the Soviet Army Aid Fund. By 1943 March, Mongolia delivered eight trainloads of supplies to the front. Mongolian breeders donated more than 30,000 horses to the Red Army and sold them 480,000 more. Mongolia increased the size of its own army by more than 200%.^:368–72

Early Cold War

In 1945 August, the Kuomintang government of China agreed to recognize Mongolia's independence if the majority of Mongolians voted to be independent in a referendum. On 1945 October 20, the people unanimously voted to maintain their independence in a vote of 487,409 to 0. Mongolia and China established diplomatic relations in 1946 February. Mongolia applied for UN membership in 1946 but was withheld until 1961.^:382–7

First Five-Year Plan (1948–1952)

Mongolia lost six million livestock during the war. It began its first five-year plan in 1948 to recover from the war. In 1949, the Central Committee criticized bourgeois nationalist views of history and literature that glorified Chinggis Khan. In 1950, the Grand People's Hural introduced a tax on animal breeding but exempted excess animals from above the plan quota from taxation. Peasants had to pay amounts of meat, wool, fat, and milk based on the plan quotas. Worker competition increased to involve 90% of workers by 1952, and many workers exceeded their quotas by six or more times in the mining, building, and transportation industries.^:388–93 The number of herders in arat production associations (APA) doubled to include 5% of total husbandries and 1.2% of total livestock.^:420

During the First Five-Year Plan, the number of horse-powered haymaking units increased by five times, and livestock shelters increased by 3.5 times. The number of livestock increased by 8.7% but did not reach the quota of 31 million. The area of land cultivated by state farms exceeded the target by 51.1%, and grain production exceeded its target by 12.5%. Industrial output in 1951 was 51% higher than in 1947 and 150% higher than in 1940. Wages for industrial workers grew by 22% during the plan and labor productivity by 28.8%. Butter production doubled, and industrial food production grew by 17.1%. The total proletarian population reached 70,000, or 14% of the country's able-bodied population, in 1952.^:394–401

Second Five-Year Plan (1953–1957)

In 1954, Jamsrangiin Sambuu was elected Chairman of the Presidium, and Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal became head of government. In 1955, Mongolia reorganized state farms under production teams. The MPRP held a congress of peasant production associations and began awarding herders who grew the size of their herds by 15% or more within two years. Industrial output increased by 69%, well above the planned growth rate of 7.8% per year. A 700-km railroad from Ulaanbaatar to Zamyn-Üüd opened in 1955. In 1957, the USSR gave free oil wells and refineries to the MPR and free access to telephone lines between Moscow, Ulaanbaatar, and Beijing.^:409–16

Collective farming

In 1953, the MPRP Central Committee held a meeting on the slow growth of the APAs. In 1954, the Council of Ministers recommended APAs to organize workers into teams and establish standards for output. Within one year, the area under APA production grew by 57% to reach 2,193 hectares with 979,500 livestock. In 1954, a new tax code was adopted that reduced overall taxes by 25%. Farms with up to 20 animals paid no taxes, while those with 50 to 100 paid 4 tögrög per camel, 3 per horse, 2 per head of cattle, 0.7 per sheep, and 0.25 per goat. The largest farms paid 8–10 per camel, 7–9 per horse, 6–8 per head of cattle, 1.75–2.3 per sheep, and 1.25–2 per goat. Small farms of 11 to 30 bodo paid 20 kg of meat and 20 liters of milk per head of cattle and 800 grams of wool per sheep while the largest farms of over 260 bodo paid 45 kg of meat and 100 liters of milk per head of cattle and 1.5 kg of wool per sheep. APA farms, regardless of size, paid 24 kg of beef and 65 liters of milk per head of cattle; 4 kg of mutton and 1.2 kg of wool per sheep; 3 kg of meat, 200 g of wool, and 220 kg of down per goat; and 4.2 kg of wool per camel.^:420–4

In 1955, the First Republican Congress renamed APAs to Agricultural Associations (AA). All members of farm families aged 16 or older had to work at least 75 days per year, and income was based on number of days worked. Depending on the region, AA members were able to personally own up to 100 or 150 livestock depending on the region. By 1957, collective farms had 5,223,600 bodo of livestock, 28 times higher than in 1952. 33% of peasant farms had joined AAs and 22.5% of Mongolia's cattle were collectively owned.^:425–6

Three-Year Plan (1958–1960)

Between 1958 and 1960, Mongolia began growing grain in 300,000 hectares of previously uncultivated land with the help of hundreds of specialists and 2,500 tractors from the USSR. Industrial output grew by 63.8%, reaching 7.4 times the 1940 level in 1960. By 1960, all sums (counties) were had direct telephone connections to provincial (aimag) centers. By 1960, proletarian families made up 36.1% of the country's population and 99.3% of farms were collectivized with a total of over five million bodo of livestock. 200,000 small farms had merged into 389 large collective farms with an average population of 1,161 humans and 13,000 bodo. Peasants could privately own up to 10 or 15 livestock per person or 50 to 75 per family.^:412–29

In 1960, the Grand People's Hural unanimously adopted a new constitution. The members of the Grand Hural were 35.2% collective farmers, 23.3% proletarians, and 41.5% intellectuals.^:434–5

Sino-Soviet Split

In 1956^:411 and 1962, the Central Committee of the MPRP criticized an alleged cult of personality around Khorloogiin Choibalsan.^:348

For the first decade after the Sino-Soviet split, Mongolia was neutral. In January 1966, Mongolia and the Soviet Union signed a mutual defense treaty. In the first half of 1969, over 4,000 livestock shelters were built that were capable of protecting over 1.8 million animals from the cold.

Third Five-Year Plan (1961–1965)

During the Third Five-Year Plan, geologists began an extensive survey of Mongolia that lasted for 10 to 15 years. Secondary education became mandatory.^:442 Mongolia adopted a new criminal code in 1963, replacing the 1952 code.^:453

Agriculture

The Third Five-Year Plan was scheduled to increase the number of tractors by 180% and the number of combine harvesters by 120% and began farming in previously uncultivated land. By 1964, the number of tractors had increased by 130% and combines by 60%. The area used to farm fodder crops increased by 2.5 times. Agricultural associations began organizing labor by teams, sectors, and branches and using labor cards to track asset contributions, work time, and payments. Mongolia had 29 state farms that covered 71.5% of the country's farmland and had 764,300 livestock.^:440–8

Industry

Mongolia planned to increase industrial production by 2.1 times over five years, with average annual growth of 16%. In 1965, 56% of industrial output was means of production. Freight transportation was scheduled to increase by 90%. Radio and telephone connections were planned between all agricultural associations and population centers and their administrative centers. Industrial output actually increased by only 60%, and electrical power generation increased by 42%. Mongolia began exporting industrial products for the first time.^:441–51

Livestock

The plan set the goal of increasing animal fodder by 33% and cattle population by 11%. It planned to increase the number of cross-bred livestock by 7.2 times and purebred by 2.5 times. About 2,000 centers for animal breeding were created, and pig and chicken farming began for the first time. Many heated animal sheds were created to protect livestock from the cold.^:439–40

50 million of Mongolia's 137 million hectares of pasture land had no water supply, and irrigation was scheduled to provide water to 75% of the country's pastures or 103 million hectares. The herdsman Ochir promoted fattening livestock to help them survive the winter, leading the mass of sheep to increase by 39,500 tons over the course of 1963 and 1964. By the end of the plan, 5,400 wells were dug and 30 million hectares of pasture lands were irrigated. Overall livestock population increased by 4% from 1960 to 1964 despite natural disasters in 1964 that exceeded the famine of 1944 in some areas.^:440–7

Counterrevolution

In 1990, a color revolution occurred and bourgeois parties were allowed to compete in elections. The Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party still won but eventually became a social democratic party by 1991. The current constitution of Mongolia was adopted in 1992. After the adoption of the new constitution, the name of the state became "Mongolia."

Government

Central government

Hurals, a rural variation of soviets, governed Mongolia. The Grand Hural, initially composed of 77 delegates, held supreme power and elected a 30-member Little Hural to administer between its sessions. The Little Hural elected a Presidium of five members and 12-member executive government.^:316–9

Local government

Local hurals existed in addition to the Grand Hural.^:318 In 1952, Mongolians elected 49,641 to local hurals.^:401

Elections

Under the MPR's 1924 constitution, soldiers and all citizens aged 18 or older who earned a livelihood with their own labour could vote regardless of gender. Former members of the clergy and secular nobility could not vote.^:316

In 1949, Mongolia introduced the secret ballot and replaced all indirect elections with direct ones.^:401

Demographics

Between 1921 and 1973, Mongolia's population almost doubled to reach 1,339,000. 40% of the population was urban and 60% was rural.^:450

Trade

Mongolia joined the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance in 1962 July. In addition to trading with other socialist countries, it traded with Egypt, Finland, France, India, Japan, Sweden, Switzerland, and the UK.^:407–8

Education

In 1924, there were less than 1,000 students in secular schools in all of Mongolia. The Ministry of Public Education was founded in 1924 February. A college for training teachers was founded in 1925. In 1934, the country had 3,125 students in 59 primary schools, 600 students in five secondary schools, and 250 students at the college for teachers. At this point, only 2.7% of school-aged children attended secular schools while 13% attended religious schools.^:459–60

By 1940, there were 331 primary and secondary schools teaching a total of 24,341 children in addition to seven specialized schools with a total of 1,332 students. The number of students studying abroad in the USSR increased from 314 in 1934 to 739 in 1940. The first Mongolian university opened in 1942. Literacy increased but was still only 20.8% in 1940. In 1940, Mongolia adopted a new alphabet that replaced the old writing system adapted from the ancient Uyghurs. Literacy reached 43.3% in 1947, 72.2% in 1956, and 90% in 1963.^:460–4

During the First Five-Year Plan (1948–1952), the number of students in primary schools increased by 84.4%, seven-year schools by 33.3%, 300% in ten-year schools, 27% in technical institutes, and 100% in universities. By 1952, adult literacy was 99%.^:400 Universal education for at least seven years was achieved by 1961. In 1965, there were over 11,000 students at eight colleges and universities and an additional 9,700 at 11 specialized schools.^:462

Space program

In 1978, aeronautical engineer Jügderdemidiin Gürragchaa was selected to participate in the Soviet Union's eighth international Intercosmos mission, as a researcher on the Soyuz 39 mission. On March 22, 1981, he launched into space from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan, becoming the first Mongolian cosmonaut. He spent nearly eight days in space, carrying out scientific experiments on the Soviet space station Salyut 6. Gurragcha left the space program on March 30, 1981, and was awarded the title Hero of the Soviet Union.

Further reading

• History of the Mongolian People's Republic: Part Two