More languages
More actions
Charhapiti (talk | contribs) m (→Impacts) |
Charhapiti (talk | contribs) m (→Impacts) |
||
| Line 40: | Line 40: | ||
==== Impacts ==== | ==== Impacts ==== | ||
The effects of fascist [[propaganda]] results in its followers being inspired to violent [[terrorist]] actions against the blamed populations, and these terrorists "have friends in high places" in the form of fascist politicians.<ref>{{Citation|author=Mnar Adley|year=2023|publisher=Mint Press News|title=Manifestos of Hate: What White Terrorists Have in Common|title-url=https://www.mintpressnews.com/manifestos-of-hate-what-white-terrorists-have-in-common/261344/}}</ref> The murder of [[working class]] Muslims and Latinos in the name of protecting the environment, and the shooting and bombing of Mosques and Synagogues to fight " | The effects of fascist [[propaganda]] results in its followers being inspired to violent [[terrorist]] actions against the blamed populations, and these terrorists "have friends in high places" in the form of fascist politicians.<ref>{{Citation|author=Mnar Adley|year=2023|publisher=Mint Press News|title=Manifestos of Hate: What White Terrorists Have in Common|title-url=https://www.mintpressnews.com/manifestos-of-hate-what-white-terrorists-have-in-common/261344/}}</ref> The murder of [[working class]] Muslims and Latinos in the name of protecting the environment, and the shooting and bombing of Mosques and Synagogues to fight "globalists" and BIPOC "invaders" are examples of this.<ref>{{Citation|author=Weiyi Cai, Simone Landon|year=2019|title=Attacks by White Extremists Are Growing. So Are Their Connections.|publisher=The New York Times|title-url=}}https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/04/03/world/white-extremist-terrorism-christchurch.html</ref><ref>{{Citation|author=Natasha Lennard|year=2019|title=The El Paso Shooter Embraced Eco-Fascism. We Can’t Let the Far Right Co-Opt the Environmental Struggle.|publisher=The Intercept|title-url=https://theintercept.com/2019/08/05/el-paso-shooting-eco-fascism-migration/}}</ref> | ||
== Types of fascism == | == Types of fascism == | ||
Revision as of 01:46, 24 August 2023
Fascism, usually understood in Marxist theory as capitalism in decay,[1] is a counter-revolutionary reactionary movement led by finance capital,[2][3] and a form of dictatorship of the bourgeoisie which emerged during periods of economic crisis in imperialist countries.[4] The Third International described fascism as the "open, terrorist dictatorship of the most reactionary, most chauvinistic, and most imperialist elements of finance capital."[5]
Fascism usually promotes policies that favour the ever-expanding domination of capital. Its political aspect is marked by pervasive anti-communism, a profound aversion towards democracy, the justification and glorification of class society through class collaboration, and chauvinistic tendencies, namely ultra-nationalism, racism, sexism, and ableism. Fascist ideologues usually promote conspiracy theories, irrational myths and manipulative distortions of truth to gather support of their popular base.
Bourgeois publication The Economist magazine introduced the euphemism privatization in 1936, unseen in political discourse at the time, to describe Nazi Germany's economic policies,[6] which in Marxist terms is the selling out of state infrastructure to the highest bidder.
Analysis of fascism
Georgi Dimitrov's analysis of fascism remains as relevant to Marxists as ever.[7]
Connections to colonialism
In Discourse on colonialism, Aimé Césaire exposed the old colonialist mindsets that would later influence fascism and survive after it. This prompted him to write in that same essay that fascism is colonialism applied to the coloniser.[8] A similar observation was made by Frantz Fanon, who wrote: "what is fascism if not colonialism when rooted in a traditionally colonialist country?"[9]
Ideological features and origins of fascism
Rather than being a unified, cohesive ideology, Fascism has always been very eclectic and based in philosophical idealism, in fact it is a core characteristic that fascists opportunistically recycle, adapt and twist narratives to fit their goals. However, the goals are always similarly brutal. Therefore it is necessary to outline fascism's ideological evolution by observing its noteworthy material impacts upon the world, not by the myriad, obscuritan, overlapping, incoherent ideological tendencies and thinkers. The only uniting force behind fascism, in practice, is its defense of the bourgeoisie and aristocracy and Western chauvinism. A disproportionate amount of influence, in fact, comes from European aristocrat ideologues.
The origins of fascism as a counter-revolutionary movement can be traced back to French far-right French Action,[a] which was an openly anti-Marxist political organization established in 1899 proposing an "integral nation" for French society through class collaboration.[10]
The term "fascism" comes from the Italian National Fascist Party,[b] a party founded by Benito Mussolini in 1921; whose practices and ideology would later define this reactionary movement as a whole. Mussolini's fascism was constructed out of an admiration and romanticization of Roman civilisation, which originated in modern-day Italy. Thus, the name fascism was based on the fasces, an axe that is surrounded and bound to a bundle of sticks and was carried by officials (lictors) in political and military demonstrations. This was a symbol of power and authority that Mussolini repurposed for fascism.
Blavatsky, Cultural Appropriation and New Age Myths
The violent and shameless appropriation of the world's cultures was wildly popular among Europeans since European colonialism began, in everything from food to clothing to "spirituality", and by the 19th century, their orientalist gaze fixated upon Asia, or "the Orient".[11] These appropriations became extremely instrumental to fascist myth making. New Age occultism such as the bizarre "Theosophy" (not to be confused with the term used by Neoplatonists) was invented by 19th century German aristocrat, Helena Blavatsky[12], a lifelong traveler and settler in the United States of America and India. Theosophy used a patchwork of orientalist myths and interpretations of various indigenous cultures, such as Tibetan Buddhism and Hinduism. Theosophy was influential in the 20th century German fascist regime's construction of the "Aryan" national myth through Guido von List's German adaptation of it into the spiritual and cultural framework of Nazism.[13] That is why the Nazis appropriated the swastika from Buddhism.[14] Blavatsky was the inventor of the Atlantis myth, Lemurians, etc. Among the bizarre myths, Theosophy claimed that the mixing of races caused degeneration.[15] The way that early orientalists treated the BIPOC, often Asian, cultures they culturally appropriated is not much different from New Age followers today, in fact the fundamental idea of a New Age movement was coined and developed in 1970 by the theosophist David Spangler and maintains its orientalist and settler-colonial core and popularity into the 21st century.[16] The term "New Age" is probably a reference to the magazine The New Age (1907-1922) which included Nietzchean and Theosophist writings. [17]
Nietzsche
Historian and Marxist-Leninist philosopher Domenico Losurdo pointed in his work Nietzsche, the Aristocratic Rebel that Nietzsche, who was an aristocrat, can be associated with a reactionary trend against the rise of the Paris commune in 1871.[18] Nietzsche's views were consistently anti-liberal, anti-socialist, anti-democratic and even promoted racial hygiene, a tendency which would later inspire fascist movements.[19]
Sorel
Georges Sorel (1847–1922) was a French syndicalist that contributed and inspired the rise of National Syndicalism in Italy and Spain. His most famous works centred around the idea of myth; which he highlights as "forming the centre of man’s cosmology and world view in all ages".[20] In 1909, Sorel began to adopt the idea of Integral Nationalism, publishing an article praising the far-right group French Action in Divenire Sociale—the leading journal for Italian Syndicalists at the time. It received immense praise by French Action; being reprinted under the name "Antiparliamentary Socialists”, and in 1910 he joined the group. During this time, he developed further reactionary ideals, leading him to support Catholic Patriotism and further embedding himself in fascist ideology.[21] Mussolini looked up highly to Sorel and claimed he was his "foremost teacher".[22]
Post-WW2
After World War II, the settler-colonial United States of North America is the new main perpetrator of orientalism,[23] and, unsurprisingly many Fascist currents are initially developed there before being replicated internationally.[24] Fascists continue to use New Age for their political foundation. Contemporary fascists such as the White House cabinet member and close advisor to Donald Trump, Steve Bannon, have publicly quoted Julius Evola.[25][26] Evola was an Italian fascist ideologue, spiritualist, and orientalist influenced by theosophy who (like Mussolini) called for a restoration of the ancient Roman empire, but fully rejected modern Western society and predicted its accelerationist collapse and the return of pre-"rational", "fuedal", "mystic" society in his own Esoteric Fascist theory.[27] Fascist New Agers have been found storming the capitol building of the United States of North America.[28][29]
Cooptation of the aesthetics of existing popular movements remains a common strategy for fascist self-promotion, solely to capture popularity. Thus, as the climate crisis unfolds in the 21st century, ecofascism has strongly emerged, shifting blame from fossil fuel capital to immigrants and nations of the global south -- in other words, promoting fascist policies through greenwashing. One prominent politician of ecofascist policies is Marine Le Pen.[30] Population control, anti-immigrant policies, and ethnocide become the alternatives pushed instead of facing capital's responsibility for ecological destruction. Blame shifting away from capital is as old as fascism's birth: the oldest and most common example shared by fascists worldwide is antisemitism. The most widely circulated and influential myth since the late 19th century is a fake story that blames Jewish people for the worlad's problems, The Protocols of the Elders of Zion.[31][32]
Impacts
The effects of fascist propaganda results in its followers being inspired to violent terrorist actions against the blamed populations, and these terrorists "have friends in high places" in the form of fascist politicians.[33] The murder of working class Muslims and Latinos in the name of protecting the environment, and the shooting and bombing of Mosques and Synagogues to fight "globalists" and BIPOC "invaders" are examples of this.[34][35]
Types of fascism
Italian fascism
The Italian fascist government of 1922 was the first known historical example of large-scale privatizations of state-owned enterprises.[36]
German fascism
See main article: Nazism
The most extreme form of fascism was German fascism, which called itself National Socialism despite being supported by finance capitalists.[37]
German fascism was most known for its genocidal, expansionist, imperialist and colonialist rule under the Nazi Party from 1933 to 1945, culminating in the deaths of at least 30 million people, including 26.6 million Soviets.[38] While the word "Nazi" is short for "National socialist", they were capitalists, the term "socialist" being nothing more than a ploy to gain working-class support. Not only did the German fascists allow the virulent exploitation of the working people and concentration of capital,[39] they adopted a settler-colonial model coupled with exploitation, colonialism, and mass terror applied to the European continent.[40] The ideological justification for colonization of European peoples by Nazis was promoted as Lebensraum,[c] and was directly influenced by Statesian genocide of Native peoples through Manifest Destiny.[41]
The Nazi Party was beaten into dissolution by the Soviet Union after the Battle of Berlin in May 1945.
Japanese fascism
Japanese fascism, also known as Shōwa Statism, was based on a number of imperialist and ultranationalist political ideas from various Japanese thinkers. Japanese fascism manifested itself in extreme militarism, monarchism, and expansionism in Asia.
Portuguese fascism
From 1933 to 1974, Portugal was ruled by the Estado Novo ("New State"), headed by António de Oliveira Salazar. Under Salazar's dictatorship, the Portuguese working class was subjugated to reactionary Christian doctrine, as well as a corporatist economy. The Salazarist regime was also militantly imperialist, repressing calls for independence and self-determination in Angola and Mozambique. The Estado Novo would finally fall in 1974, after a military coup. By the end of the 1970s, Portugal had returned to being a bourgeois democracy.[42]
Portugal, at the time a Fascist dictatorship, was one of the founding members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization.
Spanish fascism
Following the victory of the United Front in 1936, a fascist revolt led by General Franco and assisted by invading Germany and Italy, tacitly backed by the rest of the allies, broke out. A civil war lasting three years followed, culminating in the crushing of Republican forces. The regime went on to last three more decades, and it is said that the current "reformed" Spanish state is a continuation of the same regime. Notably, Franco reintroduced the king of Spain in 1956 (whose parent was deposed in 1931), and to this day Spain remains a monarchy.
Neo-fascist movements
See main article: Neo-fascism
2019 coup in Bolivia
President Evo Morales of Bolivia was re-elected to office in October 2019 with 47.08% of the total vote. Soon after, opposing fascists called the results into question, helped by fraudulent reports from the Organisation of American States (OAS), which led to their paramilitary wing causing violence in the streets. After three weeks, Morales agreed to step down and left the country.
Later, accusations of electoral fraud were completely debunked by the same journals that initially reported on them, trusting the OAS.
The new government, led by Jeanine Añez, established a military junta in the country so as to dismantle popular support for MAS (Morales' party). They pushed elections back three times, eventually having them take place in November 2020, a full year after the coup. Their efforts failed, as MAS won the presidential election in 2020 with 55% of all votes (under candidate Luis Arce).
Since his election, Arce's government has announced that they would effectively purge the military's leadership, as their treason was pivotal in letting the coup succeed.
See also
References
- ↑ What "Fascism is capitalism in decay" means
- ↑ “No, fascism is not a power standing above class, nor government of the petty bourgeoisie or the lumpen-proletariat over finance capital. Fascism is the power of finance capital itself. It is the organization of terrorist vengeance against the working class and the revolutionary section of the peasantry and intelligentsia.”
Georgi Dimitrov (1935). The fascist offensive and the tasks of the Communist International in the struggle of the working class against fascism: 'The class character of fascism'. Main Report delivered at the 7th World Congress of the Communist International. [MIA] - ↑ "Encyclopedia of Marxism".
- ↑ “Fascism, whether in its classical 20th-century form or possible variants of 21st-century neo-fascism, is a particular response to capitalist crisis, such as that of the 1930s and the one that began with the financial meltdown of 2008. Global capitalism is facing an organic crisis involving an intractable structural dimension, that of overaccumulation, and a political dimension, that of legitimacy or hegemony that is approaching a general crisis of capitalist rule.”
William I. Robinson (2019). Global capitalist crisis and twenty-first century fascism: beyond the Trump hype. Science & Society, 83(2), 155–183. doi: 10.1521/siso.2019.83.2.155 [HUB] - ↑ “Comrades, fascism in power was correctly described by the Thirteenth Plenum of the Executive Committee of the Communist International as the open terrorist dictatorship of the most reactionary, most chauvinistic and most imperialist elements of finance capital.”
Georgi Dimitrov (1935). The Fascist Offensive and the Tasks of the Communist International in the Struggle of the Working Class against Fascism: 'Fascism and the Working Class'. [MIA] - ↑ Germà Bel (2006). Retrospectives: the coining of “privatization” and Germany's National Socialist Party. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 20(3), 187–194. doi: 10.1257/jep.20.3.187 [HUB]
- ↑ Template:Author=Georgi Dimitrov
- ↑ “People are surprised, they become indignant. They say: "How strange! But never mind – it's Nazism, it will pass!" And they wait, and they hope; and they hide the truth from themselves, that it is barbarism, the supreme barbarism, the crowning barbarism that sums up all the daily barbarisms; that it is Nazism, yes, but that before they were its victims, they were its accomplices; that they tolerated that Nazism before it was inflicted on them, that they absolved it, shut their eyes to it, legitimized it, because, until then, it had been applied only to non-European peoples; that they have cultivated that Nazism, that they are responsible for it, and that before engulfing the whole edifice of Western, Christian civilization in its reddened waters, it oozes, seeps, and trickles from every crack.”
Aimé Césaire (1950). Discourse on colonialism (Discours sur le colonialisme) (p. 36). [PDF] France: Réclame. ISBN 1583670254 - ↑ Frantz Fanon (1961). Wretched of the earth (p. 90). Grove Press. ISBN 9780802150837 [LG]
- ↑ Ernst Nolte (1966). Three faces of fascism: Action Française, Italian Fascism, National Socialism (German: Der Faschismus in seiner Epoche: Die Action française, Der italienische Faschismus, Der Nationalsozialismus). New York: New American Library. ISBN 9780451008619 [LG]
- ↑ “To speak of Orientalism therefore is to speak mainly, although not exclusively, of a British and French cultural enterprise, a project whose dimensions take in such disparate realms as the imagination itself, the whole of India and the Levant, the Biblical texts and the Biblical lands, the spice trade, colonial armies and a long tradition of colonial administrators, a formidable scholarly corpus, innumerable Oriental "experts" and "hands," an Oriental professorate, a complex array of "Oriental" ideas (Oriental despotism, Oriental splendor, cruelty, sensuality), many Eastern sects, philosophies, and wisdoms domesticated for local European use -- the list can be extended more or less indefinitely. My point is that Orientalism derives from a particular closeness experienced between Britain and France and the Orient, which until the early nineteenth century had really meant only India and the Bible lands. From the beginning of the nineteenth century until the end of World War II France and Britain dominated the Orient and Orientalism; since World War II America has dominated the Orient, and approaches it as France and Britain once did.”
Edward Said (1978). Orientalism (p. 4). Vintage Books. - ↑ Jeffrey D. Lavoie (2021). Theosophical Chronology in the Writings of Guido von List (1848–1919): A Link Between H.P. Blavatsky’s Philosophy and the Nazi Movement.
- ↑ Jeffrey D. Lavoie (2021). Theosophical Chronology in the Writings of Guido von List (1848–1919): A Link Between H.P. Blavatsky’s Philosophy and the Nazi Movement. Springer.
- ↑ James M. Skidmore (2017). How Nazis twisted the swastika, a symbol of the Buddha, into an emblem of hate. Quartz.
- ↑ Helena Petrovna Blavatsky. [libgen.li/file.php?md5=4722005421409000a2200f8f271a99a1 The Secret Doctrine Vols. I & II]. Theosophy.
- ↑ J. Gordon Melton (2000-2023). New Age movement. Encyclopaedia Brittanica.
- ↑ Robert Scholes. General Introduction to The New Age 1907-1922. The Modernist Journals Project (searchable database). Brown and Tulsa Universities, ongoing..
- ↑ “[In The Birth of Tragedy,] Nietzsche’s preoccupation, or rather his anguish, about a danger not remote or hypothetical, but real and impending, is plainly evident. The reference to the Paris Commune is transparent, an event that a great part of the culture of that time experienced as the threatening announcement of a possible imminent end of culture.”
Domenico Losurdo (2002). Nietzsche, the aristocratic rebel (p. 26). ISBN 9789004270954 [LG] - ↑ “Even a scholar that moves cautiously on ground alien to him, that of philosophical historiography, and clearly wants to avoid a critical confrontation with the hermeneutics of innocence is forced to acknowledge an essential point regarding Nietzsche interpretations: ‘Much in his work can be interpreted in terms of racial hygiene.’ Other authors are even clearer: with his insistence on the ‘degeneration’ and ‘physiological decline of European humanity’, the philosopher must be placed ‘in the context of the direct preparation of eugenics’. Indeed, in this context, he sadly occupies a privileged position: he represents the ‘turning point’ for the transition from the ‘idea of selection’ to ‘anti-degenerative activism’. The reconstruction of the history behind Hitler’s eugenic and genocidal practices cannot, in this view, ignore Nietzsche, who expressly and peremptorily demanded the ‘suppression of the wretched, the deformed, the degenerate.’”
Domenico Losurdo (2002). Nietzsche, the aristocratic rebel (p. 731). ISBN 9789004270954 [LG] - ↑ Rodrigo Sobota (2020-10-15). "Georges Sorel and the Triumphant Return of the Myth"
- ↑ Zeev Sternhell (1994). THE BIRTH OF FASCIST IDEOLOGY: '1–3'. [PDF] ISBN 0-691-03289-0 [LG]
- ↑ James H. Meisel (1950-03-01). "A Premature Fascist? ― Sorel and Mussolini"
- ↑ “From the beginning of the nineteenth century until the end of World War II France and Britain dominated the Orient and Orientalism; since World War II America has dominated the Orient, and approaches it as France and Britain once did.”
Edward Said (1978). Orientalism (p. 4). Vintage Books. - ↑ Alex Ross (2018). How American Racism Influenced Hitler. The New Yorker.
- ↑ Jason Horowitz (2017). Steve Bannon Cited Italian Thinker Who Inspired Fascists. The New York Times.
- ↑ Morgan Jones (2022). How Julius Evola Became the Internet’s Favorite Fascist. Jacobin.
- ↑ “Conversely, it has rightfully been suggested that the feudal system is that which characterizes the majority of the great traditional eras and the one most suited for the regular development of traditional structures. In this type of regime the principle of plurality and of relative political autonomy of the individual parts is emphasized, as is the proper context of that universal element, that unum quod non est pars that alone can really organize and unify these parts, not by contrasting but by presiding over each one of them through the transcendent, superpolitical, and regulating function that the universal embodies (Dante). In this event royalty works together with the feudal aristocracy and the imperial function does not limit the autonomy of the single principalities or kingdoms, as it assumes the single nationalities without altering them.”
Julius Evola (1934). Revolt Against the Modern World (Italian: Rivolta contro il mondo moderno) (p. 341). Inner Traditions. - ↑ Susannah Crockford (2021). Q Shaman’s New Age-Radical Right Blend Hints at the Blurring of Seemingly Disparate Categories. Religion Dispatch.
- ↑ Angus Greig (2021). QAnon’s Unexpected Roots in New Age Spirituality. The Washington Post.
- ↑ Laurent Hubert and Jean-Noël Geist (2022). Why Marine Le Pen’s environmental agenda is greenwashing. EuroNews.
- ↑ JACQUES E. HALBRONN, LARISSA BLIMAN-HALBRONN, לריסה and ז'אק הלברון בלימן הלברו (1997). THE TERM PROTOCOLS, FROM THE ZIONIST CONGRESSES TO "THE PROTOCOLS OF THE ELDERS OF ZION" AND THE RECEPTION OF THE RUSSIAN "PROTOCOLS" IN CENTRAL EUROPE BEFORE 1917. האיגוד העולמי למדעי היהדות / World Union of Jewish Studies.
- ↑ Template:Author=Marisa Meltzer
- ↑ Mnar Adley (2023). Manifestos of Hate: What White Terrorists Have in Common. Mint Press News.
- ↑ Weiyi Cai, Simone Landon (2019). Attacks by White Extremists Are Growing. So Are Their Connections.. The New York Times.https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/04/03/world/white-extremist-terrorism-christchurch.html
- ↑ Natasha Lennard (2019). The El Paso Shooter Embraced Eco-Fascism. We Can’t Let the Far Right Co-Opt the Environmental Struggle.. The Intercept.
- ↑ “Italy’s first Fascist government applied a large-scale privatization policy between 1922 and 1925. [...] These interventions represent one of the earliest and most decisive privatization episodes in the Western world.”
Germà Bel (2011). The first privatization: Selling SOEs and privatizing public monopolies in Fascist Italy (1922-1925). doi: 10.1093/cje/beq051 [HUB] - ↑ Georgi Dimitrov (1937). The United Front: 'The Fascist Offensive and the Tasks of the Communist International' (pp. 10–11). San Francisco: Proletarian Publishers.
- ↑ “Today we can state with a certain degree of probability that losses of the Soviet Union amounted to 26.6 million people, including losses of the Armed Forces amounted to 8,668,400 servicemen. The total statistical figure includes not only those killed in action and those who died from wounds and illnesses, but also civilians killed during bombing, artillery shelling and punitive actions, prisoners of war and underground fighters shot and tortured in camps, and those sent away for forced labor in Germany.”
Lieutenant Colonel S.B. Eremenko. On the issue of losses of the opposing sides at the Soviet-German front during the Great Patriotic War (Russian: К вопросу о потерях противоборствующих сторон на советско-германском фронте в годы Великой Отечественной войны: правда и вымысел). Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation. - ↑ “The party, moreover, facilitates the accumulation of private fortunes and industrial empires by its foremost members and collaborators through "privatization" and other measures, thereby intensifying centralization of economic affairs and government in an increasingly narrow group that may for all practical purposes be termed the national socialist elite.”
Sidney Merlin (1943). Trends in German economic control since 1933 (p. 207). The Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol. 57. doi: 10.2307/1882751 [HUB] - ↑ “Hitler's writings and speeches, public and private, left no doubt that Lebensraum, or living space, was to be gained on the continent rather than overseas. The German equivalent of British India or French Algeria was not Cameroon, Togo or German Southwest Africa but central and east Europe, as some scholars have reminded the advocates of the salt water colonial paradigm.”
Thomas Kühne (2013). Colonialism and the Holocaust: continuities, causations, and complexities: 'German colonialism and German peculiarities' (p. 343). Journal of Genocide Research, vol. 15. doi: 10.1080/14623528.2013.821229 [HUB] - ↑ “Many of the Lebensraum justifications that Hitler and Nazis used directly echoed the justifications given for American Manifest Destiny. (...) National Socialists took on the mantle of noble colonizers who were fighting against ignoble savages. Not surprisingly, scholars recognize that these Nazi ideas on Lebensraum were largely modeled on late-nineteenth and early-twentieth century understandings of American expansion.”
Robert J. Miller (2020). Nazi Germany's race laws, the United States, and American Indians (p. 14). [LG] - ↑ Howard J. Wiarda (1977). Corporatism and Development: The Portuguese Experience. University of Massachusetts Press. ISBN 9780870232213