Republic of Bulgaria

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Republic of Bulgaria Република България
Flag Coat of arms
Motto: Съединението прави силата "Unity makes strength"
Anthem: Мила Родино
Capital and largest city	Sofia
Official languages	Bulgarian
Dominant mode of production	Capitalism
Government	Unitary parliamentary republic under a dictatorship of the bourgeoisie
• President	Rumen Radev
• Vice President	Iliana Iotova
• Prime Minister	Dimitar Glavchev
Area
• Total	110,993.6 km²
Population
• 2023 estimate	6,385,500

Bulgaria, officially the Republic of Bulgaria, is a European country located in the eastern part of the Balkan Peninsula, bordering Romania, Serbia, North Macedonia, Greece and Turkey. Bulgaria was the first country of the Eastern Bloc to break away from the capitalist system and take the road of socialist development, becoming the People's Republic of Bulgaria in 1946. Since the restoration of capitalism in 1990, 57% of Bulgarians say the economy has become worse and less than 12% say ordinary people are better off.

History

Early history

The earliest period of Bulgarian history is represented by Palaeolithic and Neolithic monuments. The monuments of the Eeolithic culture are close to the so-called Trypillian culture of the late 3rd and early 2nd millenniums BC, which was widespread in the Diepris-Distrovsky basin. The funerary inclusions of the burial mounds testify to the elements of the Scythian culture in the Balkan Peninsula in the middle of the 1st millennium BC.

The population had a difficult process of mutual influence of different ethnic elements. The Slavs were the predominant ethnic elements on the whole Balkan Peninsula in the middle of the 7th century. By that time the land cultivation and cattle breeding were the main occupations of the people who lived on the territory of the modern Bosnia and Herzegovina.

The social and economic organization of the Slavs was the tribal community. The development of productive forces resulted in the disintegration of the primitive communal relations and the transition to a class society: the power of tribal chiefs strengthened, the property stratification increased and the relations of classes began to replace kinship relations which gave rise to the state.

In the 7th century in the Danube part of the Balkan Peninsula there was a union of seven Slavic tribes which was the initial form of the political union and became the basis of the appearing state.

In the second half of the 7th century Bulgarian tribes under the leadership of Asparuh appeared on the right bank of the Danube. These tribes came into contact with the local Slavic population. Subsequently Bulgarians were completely assimilated into the main mass of Slavs, giving them their tribal name of Bulgarians. Bulgarians adopted Slavic language and Slavic culture.

First Bulgarian Empire

See main article: First Bulgarian Empire (681–1018)

Fearing that the territory of the future Bulgaria would fall away from the Byzantine Empire, Byzantium opposed the Bulgarians. The clash between the Bulgarians and Byzantium ended in failure for the latter. Byzantine Emperor Constantine IV was forced to make peace with the Bulgarians and undertook to pay tribute to them (679 or 681).

The Treaty of Peace between the Bulgarians and Byzantium was Byzantium's recognition of the existence of a new state of Bulgaria. Asparuh's successor Terpel (701-718) took part in the struggle of the pretenders to the Byzantine throne, assisting Justinian II. Justinian granted him the title of Caesar. Bulgaria gained serious political importance in the Peninsula. The military clash between Byzantium and Bulgaria that followed soon led to the signing of a treaty (716) which put the border between the two countries and normalized the order of trade communications. Plyasca became the capital of Bulgaria.^{[citation needed]}

The development of feudal relations in Bulgaria was reflected in the fact that the growing Bulgarian Slavic nobility expanded their possessions at the expense of the communal land and subjugated the peasantry. The development of private property was ruining the community and weakening it. The individual economy of the community members strengthened. The class struggle between the enslaved peasantry and strengthening class of feudal lords aggravated. At the same time there was a struggle for power and influence within the ruling stratum of the forming feudal state. By the beginning of the 10th century, the formation of feudal relations was completed. By this time assimilation of Bulgarians by the Slavic population was basically over. The peasants were in varying degrees of dependence on the feudals: along with the enslaved peasants there were also legally free peasants. The class of feudal lords was not homogenous: its highest layer ("great boyars") was nearest to the kings; "petty boyars" had different service in the capital and in the province or lived in their own lands, going to war with their squadrons.

The development of feudal relations was accompanied by some economic growth. The geographical position of Bulgaria through which the trade routes passed that connected Western Kirov with the East and Russia with the Byzantine Empire contributed to the growth of the Bulgarian trade. The economic importance of Danube and Black Sea towns increased. Trade connections with Byzantium became stronger and the economic upturn contributed to the strengthening of Borisov.

The beginning of the 9th century was the period of the territorial expansion of Bulgaria. The Avars were defeated and their lands on the left bank of the Danube were annexed to Bulgaria. Bulgarian lands reached the Tissa (Tisza), the Carpathians and Dniester. Prince Krum (802-814) took Serdica (Sredets, later Sofia) in the south. Krum tried to strengthen the state internally as well by issuing a number of laws. Krum's successor Omortagh founded Preslav, the new capital of Bulgaria

The close contact with the neighboring countries, especially Byzantium, led to the cultural rapprochement of Bulgaria with them. It was expressed in the gradual spread of the Christianity in Blaise. However, though there were many Christians among the Slavic population, the official religion was still pagan, which was not suitable for the new feudal relations. Prince Boris of Bulgaria, who ruled from 852 to 888, was baptized by the Byzantine clergy in 804 or 805. The baptism caused a revolt of the boyars, which was brutally suppressed by Boris.

The arrival of the Greek clergy in Bulgaria caused a danger of ecclesiastical, political and cultural subjugation of Bulgaria by Byzantium. In this context Boris entered into negotiations for the recognition of the independence of the Bulgarian Church, but achieved his goal. Bulgaria remained subordinated to the Constantinople Patriarch.

The acceptance of Christianity sped up the restructuring of the legal order. A judicial people's law was compiled as a code for civil, family, and criminal law. In the second half of the 80s of the 9th century the pupils of Methodius Clement, Nahum, Aggslarius, who had been expelled from Moravia, arrived in Bulgaria They created schools and started translating books from the Greek into the Slavic language. The end of the 9th and the beginning of the 10th centuries is the time of the cultural blossom of the ancient Byzantine Empire. Not only translated, but also original works appeared.

The economic growth and political and cultural development of Byzantium which made it a rival to Byzantium on the Balkan Peninsula led to the wars between Byzantium and Byzantium during the reign of Simeon (893-927) who called himself "king of the Bulgarians and the Greeks". The result of these wars was a significant expansion of the Bulgarian territory in the Balkan Peninsula but the ownership of the Bulgarian lands on the left bank of the Danube was largely captured by the Hungarians. The fight with Byzantium required a huge effort of the population which was devastated by the repeated moves of the Byzantine and Byzantine troops in the country. Feudal exploitation of peasants increased dramatically. The economic power and political role of individual feudal lords increased. All this has led to a sharp social and political crisis expressed in the anti-feudal peasants' movement which has taken the religious form of heresy the so called Bogomilism and in feudal conspiracies. The Bogomil movement was directed against the very foundations of the feudal system. The Bogomils opposed the dependence of peasants on feudal lords and feudal obligations. They resented the luxury of the secular and church nobility and the idleness of the monks. The dissemination of theophilism and the growth of Bogomilskie speeches indicate the rise of the anti-feudal peasant movement. Feudal conspiracies and attempts of feudal uprisings (928 and 930) resulted in the fall of the western part of Benin and the formation of the West Bulgarian Empire (909–1018).

The weakening of Bulgaria due to the feudal fragmentation caused the Byzantine Empire to attempt to subjugate Bulgaria. The Byzantine Emperor Nicephorus II Phokas put Prince Svyatoslav in the fight with the Byzantine Empire. Svyatoslav attacked Dobrudzha (907 or 908) and took the town of Maly Preslav, where he decided to settle. Byzantium did not intend to assist in the spreading of the prince's power on the Danube lands and therefore Svyatoslav returned to his homeland. However soon (909 or 971) Svyatoslav returned to Bulgaria, where the population supported him in the fight against Byzantium. Svyatoslav recognized the Bulgarian King Boris II as his legitimate ruler. The second appearance of Svyatoslav led to a clash between the troops of the Kievan prince, who were helped by the Bulgarians, and the Byzantine troops. This struggle on the territory of Bulgaria ended in the defeat of Svyatoslav.

The Byzantine emperor John Tzimiskes who led a campaign against Svyatoslav and his Bulgarian allies, assured that his task was to liberate Bulgaria but after Svyatoslav left he proclaimed the annexation of Bulgaria to the Byzantine Empire, destroyed the Bulgarian patriarchy, formed under Simeon, and took the last Bulgarian king to Constantinople. The East-Bulgarian kingdom fell (972).

The Western Bulgarian empire existed for 46 more years. During this period the most part of the Bulgarian lands has been released. Long period of wars with Byzantium proceeded, passing at first rather successfully for Bulgarian, but then the vice versa has appeared on the party of Byzantium. In 1014, Emperor Basil II, later nicknamed "Bulgar-slayer", defeated the Bulgarian army at Belasitsa. Military successes of the Byzantines and the struggle between the pretenders to the Bulgarian throne demoralized the Bulgarian feudal lords. When Basil II undertook a second march in 1018 the members of the Tsar's house and the boyars who had attached to them capitulated. Separate attempts by the Bulgarians to continue the struggle were unsuccessful.^{[citation needed]}

Bulgaria under Byzantine rule (1018–1185)

Bulgaria was gradually transformed into a Byzantine province and the general Byzantine administrative system was extended to it. The West Bulgarian church was transformed into an archbishopric subject to the patriarch of Constantinople, archbishops were appointed from the Greeks. Thus, the Bulgarian church lost its national character. Byzantium tried to destroy the very name "Bulgaria" and usually called it Mezia.

Under Byzantine Domination, the state of the Bulgarian population significantly worsened: the number and size of the taxes for the enslaved peasants increased dramatically, the land tax was levied in money, the state bought the products of the peasant labor at a compulsory price. The institution of irony (temporary grants of land to feudal lords) was widely spread. As rent could not become a hereditary property, Proniar tried to gain maximum profit during the period of land tenure and burdened peasants with work and levies. The abuses of the Byzantine authorities, levies in favor of the Greek clergy, and increasing taxes led to the ruin and enslavement of the peasants.

The severity of the feudal oppression caused a new growth of the Bogomil movement, which this time was directed mainly against foreign rule. The widespread dissemination of the doctrine of the Bogomils resulted in cruel persecutions and executions. The pillaging and ruin of Borisov led to the worsening of the fight against the Byzantine yoke. In 1040 in connection with the order to collect the land tax in monetary form unrest began in Borisov. The grandson of the Tsar Samuel Peter Deliang raised a rebellion which involved the Skopje region, the Drach region and Epirus. In 1072 the Bulgarians revolted under the leadership of the Skovlian boyar Georgin Vontokh having proclaimed Constantine Bodan king. This rebellion was also defeated.

The population of the eastern part of the country did not participate in the liberation of Borislavl as it was exposed to the attacks of the Pechenegian attackers. In 1048 the Byzantine Emperor consented to the settlement of 20 thousand Pechenegs in North Bosnia in order to make the position of the Bulgarians more difficult. 20 thousand Pechenegs horde. A year later several hundred thousand Pechenegs invaded the Danube region. These raids were repeated later. Since the end of the 50s of the 11th century the attacks of Uzes (Thors), Magyars and Polovetses began. In 1090-97 the crusaders who participated in the first crusade and ruined and plundered the citizens. The invasions of the nomads, crusaders and military service resulted in the reduction of the Bulgarian population.

Bulgaria was in constant political and cultural contact with Russia. Most of the Bulgarian uprisings against Byzantine rule usually coincided in time with the periods of Russia's clashes with Byzantium. The Byzantine Empire, exhausted by this, left the Danube region to its fate, which opened new opportunities for the Bulgarian people to fight for the liberation of Bulgaria.^{[citation needed]}

Second Bulgarian Empire

See main article: Second Bulgarian Empire (1185–1396)

Around 1185 a rebellion started in Tarnovo, led by the local feudal lords, the Asen and Piotr brothers. The uprising spread throughout the Danube region and was supported by other feudal lords and the people, leading to the creation of the Second Bulgarian Kingdom. Major victories were won under the successor of Assn (1186-97) and Peter (1137) who were murdered by the boyars—their third brother Kaloyan who ruled from 1197—1207 when Bulgaria regained its independence and expanded its borders in the west. By the peace treaty of 1202 Byzantium recognized the independence of Bulgaria After the failure of the negotiations with Byzantium on the recognition of the royal title and the independence of the Bulgarian Church Kaloyan concluded a church union with the pope. The supremacy of the Pope over the Bulgarian Church was recognized, leaving it with internal autonomy; the Pope granted Kaloyan the title of King. The union had no serious repercussions. When Byzantium was captured by the Western Knights of the Crusades in 1204, Kaloyan defeated them in 1205 at Adrianople, which stopped their further advance across the Balkan Peninsula. Like his brothers, Kaloyan was assassinated by the boyars, who could not accept the loss of their former privileges and were in a conspiracy with the Byzantine court.

The Second Bulgarian Kingdom reached its greatest prosperity under Ivan Asen II (1218-41). He seized the throne with the help of a Russian military detachment. During this period the possessions of Bulgaria in the west were extended and Wallachia Minor (on the left bank of the Danube) was annexed, followed by Southern Bulgaria In 1230, after the defeat of the Despot of Epiros at the battle of Klscotnica, his possessions (Macedonia, Northern Greece, Albania) were annexed to Bulgaria Bulgaria became the largest power in the Balkan Peninsula.

But these successes were unstable due to the strengthening of feudal feuds. During this period the large landholdings of the feudal lords increased. They captured lands of Byzantine landowners and communal lands.

The process of development of feudal relations was expressed in strengthening of peasants' dependence and their exploitation. Most of the peasants were in the position of serfs.

Large landowners as a result of the development of trade with Italy were able to sell their bread. The privileged position of the large landowners

The privileged position of the large landowners strengthened the importance of the nobility. Already under Kaloyan the power of the state had to struggle against the desire of the feudal lords to isolate themselves. At the very beginning of the 13th century the governor Slav in the Rhodopes broke away from Bulgaria, and another big feudal Stroz not only declared himself independent but urged others to do the same which resulted in leaving a large part of Macedonia out of the king's power. There was a fierce struggle within the ruling class. Ivan Asesho II temporarily managed to subdue large feudal lords. He gave land and privileges to feudal lords, but at the same time he tried to strengthen the central state power. He created army, independent from feudal lords; administrative and tax system reminiscent of the Byzantine system was introduced on the king's lands. Privileges for Dubrovshchik merchants promoted the development of trade and growth of economic life of the country. But the development of foreign trade did not strengthen the internal unity of the country due to the lack of significant internal economic links. The process of feudal fragmentation intensified under the successors of Ivan Assn II. The feudal lords in various parts of Benin broke off with the Tsar, often allied with foreign enemies (Tatars, Hungarians) and together with them took part in wars against the Tsar's troops which weakened the Tsar's rule and contributed to the dissolution of the State.

Bogomilism and other forms of protest against feudal oppression were widespread among the serfs who were subjected to severe feudal exploitation. The plight of the peasantry, ruined by the feudal lords, worsened by the Tatar raids (1241—1300), caused a popular movement headed by the shepherd Ivaylo (1277). The big peasant detachments headed by him started a successful fight against the Tatars and drove them out of the country. Then the insurrectionists defeated the Byzantine troops which had been sent to install the candidate desirable for Byzantium as a Bulgarian king. The people sought not only liberation from external enemies, but also sought to destroy the oppression of the feudal lords. Ivaylo won the struggle against the king, seized the capital (Tarnovo) and took the royal throne through marriage with the widowed queen. Byzantium did not give up its attempts to place its appointee on the Bulgarian throne. Boyars saw in Ivaylo their enemy, but Ivaylo only threatened to deprive the boyars of their privileges without carrying out these threats. The peasantry did not get freedom and began to move away from Ivaylo. He turned to the Tatars for support in his fight against Byzantium. But Ivaylo was killed in the Tatar horde (1280).

From the second quarter of the 14th century, the Turks began attacking Bulgaria It was not able to withstand them because of the feudal fragmentation of the country. The population shied away from the military service. The personal friendship of the Tsar was insignificant. One of the most outstanding Bulgarian rulers of that time Pian Alexander (1331-71) tried to use diplomatic means to regulate his relations with the Turkish sultan.

At the end of the 14th century Balkan was a conglomeration of independent feudal states which were often hostile to each other. The population of Tŭrnovo kingdom heroically resisted the Turkish onslaught. However, after a long siege Tarnovo fell (1393). On the call of the Pope a militia of the Cross was gathered against the Turks headed by the Hungarian King Sigismund. The Crusaders were defeated by the army of Sultan Bayazid at Nicopolis (1390); after that the Turks conquered the kingdom of Bidipa of Ivan Sracimprus who had let the militia through his lands and the possessions of Ivanko in Dobrudja.^{[citation needed]}

Ottoman rule

The Turkish conquerors divided the territory of Bulgaria into three sancakas (provinces): Vidin, Nikopol, and Splistri. These sandjaks, as well as Thrace and Macedonia, were under the authority of the Beyler Bey, who had his residence in Sofia. The Turkish seizure of Bulgaria entailed important changes in Bulgaria The Bulgarian boyars, some of whom were exterminated, some of whom lost their privileges (with the exception of those who accepted Islam), were replaced by the Turkish feudal lords. Class oppression over the peasants was joined by national and religious oppression. Turks took the land into their own hands and converted the majority of Christian population into the masses with no rights and inferiority and called it "flock"—paradise. The Sultan was the supreme owner of the land which was given to Turkish feudal lords (snakhia) as a legal possession and some lands were allocated for mosques and other Muslim religious institutions (pakuf lands). Part of the land was occupied by Turkish settlers, peasants who settled mainly in fertile and strategically important areas. The enslaved Bulgarian peasants, in addition to the numerous state burdens (Harach, the land tax; Prospeich, the recruitment of boys 5—7 years old who later joined the Janissary units, etc.). The majority of peasants were considered hereditary. Most of the peasants were considered hereditary holders of the Spahiye land. Among the rayis there were groups exempt from some taxes but obliged to perform special functions such as serving in the army, military-polyceum service in the mountain passages, etc.

The establishment of the military-feudal system of the Ottoman Empire led to the economic decline of Borisov and the extreme worsening of the situation of its population. The expulsion of Bulgarians from some cities contributed to the decline of the city life. During the first centuries of the Turkish rule the craft and commerce were under the control of other nationalities, mainly Greeks. The foreigners (Venetians, Genoese, Dubrovcians) were in charge of the foreign trade. The national and religious oppression of the Turks, expressed in various legal and domestic restrictions on Christians, was extremely severe.

The Bulgarian national church was destroyed and Bulgaria was subordinated to the Constantinople Patriarchate, which ensured Greek domination in the church and opened the way for the elimination of Bulgarians. However many Bulgarian monasteries continued to be the keepers of national culture; in their activity they relied on the connections and material support of the Russian church. For the Bulgarian people Russia, the great Slavic power, was a natural protector, and all hopes for liberation from the Turkish yoke were connected with expectation of help from the Russian state. But at that time Rus' was not yet in a position to provide such assistance. At the very beginning of the 15th century the surviving representatives of the former Bulgarian Tsarist clans had risen in the area bordering the Serbian lands (1403- 05), but this attempt to throw off the Turkish dominion was a failure. Ten years later there was a second attempt to revolt against the Turks, also unsuccessful.

The decline of the Ottoman Empire began at the end of the 16th century. The population's struggles, arbitrariness of the spahns, officials' abuses and forcible Turkization of the population intensified in the decaying Empire. The people's indignation and desire to repudiate the oppressors was growing. The attempts to create alliances of European powers against Turkey and its failure in wars promoted the connection of Bulgarians with the neighboring countries. The economic relationship with Dubrovnik which was a trade mediator between Bulgaria and other countries increased the importance of the Dubrovnik merchants. The merchant George was one of the leaders of the revolt in Bulgaria In 1597 the Bulgarians secured the promise of help from the Austrian Emperor. The uprising that started in 1598 covered the area of Tirpovo. Badly organized and poorly armed insurgents hoped for foreign help. But the Austrian help did not come and the uprising was crushed. Some leaders and participants of the rebellion fled to the Russian state. As the European coalition with the participation of Russia and Austro-Turkish war was created in Tarnovo in 1686 a new rebellion started which was headed by Rostislav Sratzmirovna who was pretending to be a descendant of the old dynasty of Indian kings and had contacts with Russian patriarch Joachim.

The revolt failed. Almost all the Bulgarians who had fortified themselves in Tarnovo were slaughtered. Only with great difficulty did Rostislav and his associates manage to make their way to Russia. The movement of this small detachment caused an uproar in Sredne, but the city's residents, surrounded by Turks, were also defeated. After that, in 1688, a rebellion broke out in Chin-Rovets, the center of mining, but it was also suppressed. Since that time separate rebellions and partisan actions in different regions of Bulgaria have not stopped.

The rise of Kaisaisalism in Bulgaria. The formation of Bulgarian National Revolution. The struggle of the Bulgarian people against the Turkish yoke was successful. From the second half of the 18th century in the Ottoman Empire began the dissolution of the feudal and the development of capitalist relations. Natural rent began to turn into monetary rent. The exploitation of peasants intensified. The process of differentiation of the peasantry, which was accompanied by the emergence of land owners from the Bulgarians. This process intensified in the 19th century, when the peasantry received the official right to own land.

The urban population changed due to the influx there of the impoverished part of the Bulgarian population (especially in the first quarter of the 19th century), the crafts and trade developed. The shop organizations were becoming Bulgarian. The rank-and-file artisans, with the development of capitalist relations, became increasingly dependent on the masters. A great role in the economic development of Bulgaria was played by the Kuchuk

Kainarji Peace Treaty of 1774 which opened the straits and gave Russian merchants the freedom of trade in the Turkish possessions. Domestic trade increased which was reflected in the growth of local fairs.

In the process of the development of capitalism the Bulgarian nation was being formed. The social composition of the population was changing. Some of the Bulgarian traders and moneylenders became the de facto owners of the large land holdings. From this environment came cattle traders and tax payers who enjoyed special privileges. This group (the so-called Chor-Bajis) was in close connection with the Turkish administration and was opposed to the liberation struggle because of their economic interests. The other part of the Bulgarian bourgeoisie, mixed economically, aspiring to the development of industry, was gravitating to the military-feudal Turkish oppression. Political disenfranchisement and a desire for domination motivated the young Bulgarian bourgeoisie to strive to fight the Turkish yoke.

The awakening of national consciousness in the 18th century was reflected in the "History of Slav-Bulgarian" by Paisius of Hilsandar (1762). The work opposed the Hellenistic efforts of the Greek clergy and merchants to Hellenize the Bulgarians and called for the preservation of the Bulgarian language and national development. Gradually the Bulgarian monastic and Greek secular schools have been replaced by the national secular school.

External events further strengthened this process. The French bourgeois revolution at the end of the 18th century had its repercussions in Bulgaria. The Serbian and Greek national-liberation rebellions at the beginning of the 19th century in which the Bulgarians took part had a great influence on the course of the liberation struggle in Bulgaria. The Russian-Turkish wars which took place on the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina between the 18th and 19th Centuries had the Bulgarian people's hope for the speedy liberation. When the Russian army carried out military actions on the territory of Borisov the Bulgarians would form detachments which would fight together with the Russian troops. So, during the Russian-Turkish war in 1828-29 the Bulgarian officer Georgi Mamarchev created a volunteer Bulgarian detachment which operated jointly with the Russian troops. During the Crimean War (1853–56) Nikolai Filipovsky, a craftsman, was preparing a revolt in Tarnovo, and Bulgarian revolutionary G. Vakovsky with his collected detachment was preparing to join the Russian army. The Bulgarian revolutionary G. Vakovsky prepared to join the Russian army. After the withdrawal of the Russian troops from the Bulgarian lands, many Bulgarians moved to Russia as intermediaries between their new homeland and their brothers who had remained in their homeland. Bulgarian merchants have long settled in Odessa and Moscow. During the Crimean War in Odessa "Bulgarian Superiority" was established, which assisted the Russian troops in Bulgaria The influence of the Russian culture on Bulgaria was extremely great. Russian books were widely distributed in Bulgaria Many Bulgarians received education in Russia. V. Anilov, a prominent figure in the field of public education, 11. Gorov, a prominent philologist and public figure, M. Drinov, the founder of the Bulgarian historical science, N. Bonchev, a literary critic, L. Karavelov, a bourgeois democrat, H. Botev, an outstanding poet and revolutionary and hundreds of other makers of the national liberation period in Bulgaria have studied in Russia. Russian revolutionary and democratic thought had an enormous influence on the formation of the outlook of Botev and others.

The Paris Peace Treaty of 1850, which ended the Crimean War, opened a free access of European goods to Turkey and caused a crisis of local crafts and trade, the mass ruin of traders. Representatives of the big bourgeoisie, who appropriated a part of foreign trade in Turkey, were inclined to support the existence of the Ottoman Empire. Part of the bourgeoisie, the victims of the crisis and bankrupt artisans were in a difficult situation, out of which could only give the destruction of the Turkish domination and the dissolution of the feudal system. The sharp aggravation of social and national conflicts made the Sultan in 1858 to issue a second land law (in 1834 it was declared the destruction of the Timariot system), which established the destruction of Snahiye land tenure and providing peasants with land for a high ransom. This law, as well as the formal recognition of the equality of religions and nationalities of the empire, had no practical significance. However, albeit slowly, the development of capitalism also captured the village. Attempts to replace in-kind taxes with money and the redemption of land put the peasants in the hands of moneylenders. The peasantry was going bankrupt.^{[citation needed]}

The development of capitalist relations in Bulgaria strengthened the growth of the national liberation struggle. The leadership at this stage belonged to the bourgeoisie. Since the end of the 30s of the 19th century, the struggle for the national church began, especially after the Crimean War. In 1860 Bulgaria broke with the Patriarchate of Constantinople which did not want to recognize the independence of the Bulgarians. In 1870 the Sultan issued a law on the Bulgarian Exarchate, which established an independent Bulgarian Church under the administration of the Exarch, elected by the Bulgarian bishops.

The first representative of the democratic circles (peasants and artisans) in the Bulgarian national-liberation movement was the outstanding Bulgarian revolutionary and publicist Vakovsky. He was looking for ways of direct armed fight against the Turkish oppressors, formed a detachment in Serbia and intended to enter Bulgaria and raise a revolt. However, the implementation of the plan was prevented by the military clash between the Serbs and the Turks in Belgrade and the ensuing bombing of Belgrade by the Turks which caused the intervention of European diplomacy (1862). After a few years in Bucharest a "Secret Conspiracy Committee" was formed to prepare the revolt in Bulgaria However, the representatives of the big bourgeoisie in the committee prevailed over the radical elements. They came up with the project of transforming Turkey on the dualistic basis according to the Austro-Hungarian model, with granting Bulgaria autonomy and crowning the Sultan as the King of Bulgaria At the end of 1866, Vakovsky created a secret organization in Bucharest to prepare the revolt in Bulgaria but due to his death (1867) the army did not start to act.

The creator of a major revolutionary-liberation organization was V. Levski. A democrat and republican, an ardent enemy of Chorbajistn, he sought to free Bulgaria politically and economically. Levski began extensive activities to create a branched network of revolutionary committees in Bulgaria. The general meeting of the committees adopted the program and the charter (1872). Created Bulgarian Revolutionary Central Committee (Bucharest Committee) was heterogeneous in composition. The revolutionary-democratic wing led by Levski sought to eliminate the Turkish feudal domination by revolutionary means. The radical-bourgeois wing, led by L. Karavelov, found the errors and contributed to the softening of some points of the program. Levski developed a wide organizational activity in Bulgaria, and he was arrested and executed (1878).

After the death of Levsky, the organization continued its activities in a significantly narrowed scope. In 1874 a new committee was elected, which included Karavelov and a prominent poet and revolutionary H. Botev. Karavelov, who had studied in Russia, was familiar with the Russian revolutionary and democratic thought, but as a representative of the bourgeois circles, he could not perceive its revolutionary essence. Botev's views were formed under the direct influence of the works of Chernyshevsky, Herzen, Pisarev and other Russian revolutionary democrats; he became the leader of the revolutionary wing of the Committee. Disagreements between representatives of two currents led to concentration of actual leadership of the Committee in the hands of Botev. A general meeting of the organization elected a new committee headed by Botev (1875) and decided to prepare an uprising, the success of which was expected because of the uprising in Bosnia and Herzegovina. A revolutionary situation was developing in Bulgaria. The committee sent the Bulgarian uprising leaders there. However, the uprising was poorly prepared; it began on September 10. 1875 in Stara Eagora but was quickly suppressed.

Failure led to disagreements in the Committee, and Botev resigned from its membership. A group of revolutionaries, disappointed in the actions of the Bucharest Committee, gathered soon in Gurgev and formed a new Central Committee, assigning a new revolt for the spring of 1876. The country was divided into districts to which leaders were sent. The date of the uprising was fixed (May 1), but the rebellion had to be started before the deadline (April 20) because of the Turkish government's denunciation. The districts rose to struggle not at the same time. The strongest rebellion was in Panagyurpsha District where the leader of the rebels was G. Vankovskiy. was the leader of the rebels. A wide range of peasants, artisans, petty bourgeoisie and petty bourgeois intelligentsia took part in the uprising. The uprising plan called for the arrival of several detachments (Chet) from Romania. One of the detachments, which departed by steamer, was commanded by X. Botev. Soon after the landing the detachment met with the Turks. In the battle on May 20, 1876 Botev was killed and the detachment was destroyed by the Turks. Another detachment arriving from Romania was also destroyed. The poorly prepared, poorly armed rebellion was defeated. However, the defeat of the uprising did not break the determination of the Bulgarian patriots to fight for the liberation of the country. Some of them joined the Serbian forces fighting against the Turkish yoke. The brutal suppression of the revolt, accompanied with mass executions caused wide public response abroad. In Russia and in many other countries there were outraged protests against the atrocities of the Turkish government and vigorous demands for the national liberation of the Bulgarians. The English government from the very beginning of the national liberation movement of the Balkan Slavs in 1875-76 recommended to the Turkish government to drown the uprising in blood, and subsequently it protected the Turkish murderers and claimed that the reports of atrocities were exaggerated. This way it wanted to hide its participation in the massacre.

The events of April—May 1876 in Bulgaria became a subject of diplomacy, negotiations between Russia, Austria-Hungary and Germany. On April 12 ay. On April 12, 1877 Russia declared a war on Turkey. The Russian troops in Bulgaria caused a strong upsurge of the national liberation struggle of the Bulgarians. To support the Russian troops the Bulgarians created militia detachments which joined the Russian troops and took part in fights for the liberation of their country.

Principality of Bulgaria

See main article: Principality of Bulgaria (1878–1908)

The heroic struggle of the Russian troops which was unanimously supported by the majority of the Bulgarian people resulted in the defeat of the Turkish troops in Bulgaria and the return of Bulgaria from the yoke of the Turks. On March 3 1878 the Treaty of Peace was signed in San Stefano which recognized the independence of Bulgaria. Turkey also recognized the borders of the new country. However, England, Austria-Hungary and Germany were against the formation of an independent state. At their insistence and in 1878 Verlennes convened a Congress to revise the Treaty of Stéphane. Although Russia was the victor in the war that had just ended, other powers that had not taken part in the war took the lead at the Congress. This resulted in the suppression of the legitimate interests of the Bulgarian people. The territory of Bulgaria, established by the Sai-Stefai Treaty, was divided into three parts. From North Bulgaria the vassal, in relation to the Turks, Bulgarian princedom was created. An autonomous province—Voet—was created from the Southern Balkans as a part of the Turkish Empire. Rumelin, headed by the Christian Governor General appointed by the Turkish Government, Macedonia and Thrace were left under the Turkish authority. The splitting up of Bulgaria was caused by the fears of the Western European powers that the creation of a large and strong Slavic state in Bulgaria would be a barrier to their expansionist aspirations and strengthen Russia's influence on Bulgaria. Russia could not oppose the three major powers of the time.^{[citation needed]}

Russia provided great assistance to the newly created Bulgarian state. Under the guidance of Russian representatives in the Bulgarian principality a number of measures for its civil and military organization were taken. The army which would be able to defend the country's integrity and independence was founded in V. Russia provided the new Bulgarian army with arms and ammunition, gave Bulgaria the Danube fleet which it had stolen from the Turks during the war and handed over 20,000 horses, helped in the selection and training of officers and non-commissioned officers.

On 10 Feb. On 10 February 1879 the Constituent Assembly was convened in Tarnovo. The Constituent Assembly adopted the constitution, which was later called the Tarnovo

Tarnovo. The Tarnovo Constitution stipulated universal suffrage, a unicameral system, limited the prince's authority and established the responsibility of ministers before the National Assembly. The Constituent Assembly, in which the Liberals were represented, accepted the relatively progressive bourgeois Tyrnova Constitution because of the changes in the balance of class forces in the country. As a result of the Russian-Turkish war together with the Turkish troops the Turkish landlords fled from Bulgaria, which facilitated the destruction of the Turkish feudal regime and V. The Russo-Turkish war of 1877-78 had played a great progressive role in the historical development of Benin as it resulted in the liberation from the national enslavement and oppression of feudalism. The liberation of V. created conditions for faster capitalistic development. The land which was formerly owned by the Turkish feudal lords was handed over to the Bulgarian peasants. The development of tovar-monetary relations, debts to the Rostov kings, heavy taxes led to the mass ruin of the peasant households. A small group of kulaks, moneylenders and traders concentrated considerable funds in their hands. The stratification of the peasantry was growing. Capitalism was strengthening in V. At the same time V. became more and more an arena of competition between Western European countries that tried to turn V. into their agrarian and raw materials appendage.

The first Prince of the newly created Bulgarian principality from 1879 was the German Prince Alexander Batenberg. Being an extreme reactionary Prince Alexander Battenberg started a struggle with liberals and in May 1881 he abolished the Constitution establishing a regime of "extraordinary powers". Alexander Vittenberg acted mainly in the interests of Germany and Austria-Hungary, turning V. In the Balkans he turned it into a bastion of Austro-German influence. The anti-Russian orientation of the Prince, supported by England, was reflected in the choice of the direction of the railway construction in Bulgaria It was decided to build the Tzarnbrod-Sofia-Vakarel railroad which would connect Bulgaria with Germany via Budapest-Becu on one side and Constantinople on the other, instead of the railroad which was to be used for the connection with Russia. Seeking support against the Russian influence, the Prince even made a temporary agreement with the liberals and in 1883 revolted the Constitution.

After September 1885, as a result of the uprising Vojt. Rumelnia (South Bulgaria) was joined to the Principality of Bulgaria. Serbia, which was under the influence of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, declared war on V. The war ended with a quick victory of the inspired Bulgarian army which secured the borders of the reunified Bulgarian principality according to the Bucharest Peace Treaty of 1886. During the same period Balkan Albania had to cede two small districts (Tamrush and Kardzhali) on its southern border to Turkey which in return Turkey recognised the unification of Eastern Bulgaria with Balkan.

In August 1886 a palace coup took place in Bulgaria Alexander Battenberg was deposed. However, the Board of Regents, instigated by the Western European capitalist circles, pursued a hostile policy against Russia, which led to a rupture in diplomatic relations between Russia and V. (November 8, 1886). After long negotiations, thanks to the machinations of Austro-German diplomacy the German prince was put on the Bulgarian throne.

German Prince Ferdinand Koburgsky, an Austrian army officer (July 7, 1887), was placed on the Bulgarian throne. Russia did not recognize the new prince. At that time the de facto ruler in the country was Istanbul (first the regent, and since 1887 the head of government), who represented the circles of the Bulgarian bourgeoisie oriented towards Austria-Hungary and cruelly persecuted the Russian supporters. The country was established a political dictatorship and the foreign (mainly Austrian) capital was widely accessible which caused discontent of Bulgarian craftsmen and the nascent industrial bourgeoisie.

In 1898 the Tarnovo constitution was amended in the direction of expanding the power of the Prince. Using the dissatisfaction in the country with the policy of Istanbul, Ferdinand gave him his resignation in 1894. Having strengthened its position in the country, Ferdinand decided to defuse tense relations with Russia. In order to gain the sympathy of the Russian court, Ferdinand, himself a Catholic, converted his son Boris to Orthodoxy by inviting him to become godfather of Tsar Nicholas II. The active policy in the Far East and the aggravation of relations with Britain prompted the tsar's government to temporarily soften relations with Austria-Hungary and Germany. In 1895 diplomacy, relations between Bulgaria and Russia were restored.

From the end of the 19th century, capitalist production rapidly developed in Bulgaria In 1887 there were only 35 large industrial enterprises, but in 1901 there were about 200 of them. The policy of the governing authorities was determined by the interests of the big bourgeoisie. From 1894, a number of laws on the protection of industrial shares, either by financing it or by changing customs tariffs, were passed. Foreign monopolists and bourgeoisie, who were managing the country, placed the sheaves of capital in the light industry, from which they quickly derived profits because of the relatively faster circuit of capital and this industry, and the development of capitalism was accompanied by the ruin of small producers, the growth of the proletariat. In 1893 the number of independent owners decreased by 21.4% as compared with 1888, while the number of servants increased by 33.5%. In 1898 in Bulgaria there were already about 300 thousand workers and commercial and industrial employees.^{[citation needed]}

In 1900-14, the period of imperialism was marked for Bulgaria, as well as for all capitalist countries, by the aggravation of the contradictions inherent in capitalism. (The growth of the working class and its class consciousness in the country increased the class struggle.

In 1891, two currents, the Marxist party led by Blagoev and the opportunist one (so called "soshnsti"), were created in the party. Later, under the influence of the works of Lenin and Lenin's Iskra, a revolutionary wing strengthened in the ranks of this party. In 1903, as a result of a long and persistent struggle, the party split into "tesins" or "close" Socialists and "broad" Socialists. The "broad" Socialists stood for wide access to the Party, which inevitably led to organizational dissoluteness and the contamination of the Party by petty-bourgeois elements. The "Teshchyaks" were for the close, united ranks of the workers' party as the vanguard of the Bulgarian proletariat fighting against capitalist oppression and for socialism.

In 1899 a peasant organization, the People's Farmers' Union, was established in Bulgaria

Tsardom of Bulgaria

See main article: Tsardom of Bulgaria (1908–1946)

The revolution of 1905-07 in Russia was very well responded to by Bulgaria. A wave of strikes spread all over the country, one of the results of which was the growth of trade unions (about one thousand workers were organized into trade unions in Minsk, in 1911 over 30 thousand). In October 1908 the Rebellion renounced vassal dependence to Turkey and declared the country fully independent. Ferdinand took the title of King. The Balkan Union was established in 1912, which included Turkey, Serbia, Greece and Montenegro. The goal of the Alliance was to fight against the mutual enemy Turkey which had many Bulgarians, Serbs, Macedonians and Greeks under its rule. In October 1912 the countries of the Balkan Union started the war against Turkey. At that time Bulgaria was the strongest country in the Balkans. It had an army of over 400,000 men. Turkey was quickly defeated during the floods and had to ask for peace. On 30 May 1913 a peace treaty was signed in London. By the Treaty, Turkey was deprived of its possessions in the Balkans. However, after the successful end of the First Balkan War, which was objectively of a liberating nature, the war between the recent allies over the division of the liberated territory soon broke out. The Austro-German diplomacy, interested in the discord between the Balkan allies, played a big role in unleashing the war. By order of Ferdinand, encouraged by Austria-Hungary and Germany and supported by the Bulgarian bourgeoisie, on June 29 1913 the Bulgarian army attacked Serbia and Greece. Soon Romania and Turkey opposed Bulgaria and the Bulgarian army was defeated. Bulgaria was forced to give South Dobrogea to Romania, and Macedonia, which Bulgaria was claiming, was divided between Serbia and Greece; only a small piece of Macedonia went to Bulgaria. According to the Treaty of Constantinople signed on September 29. 1913 Bulgaria received a part of Western Thrace which was its exit to the Aegean Sea but had to give it to Turkey the town of Adrianople with the adjoining territory.

During the Second Balkan War (July 1913) came to power a pro-German government of "Liberal Concentration" Raslan, completely focused on Germany and Austria-Hungary. The economic and political influence of the latter on Bulgaria increased. On July 12, 1914 the Bulgarians received a loan from Germany which strengthened the submission of the Bulgarians economy to German imperialism.^{[citation needed]}

At the beginning of the First World War, the government of P. declared its neutrality. A struggle was going on in stormy:, circles over the issue of the foreign policy orientation of the V. The Government conducted secret negotiations with both warring parties. On Sept. On September 15, 1915 secret treaties (alliance treaty and military convention) were signed between Bulgaria and Germany and Austria-Hungary promising Macedonia and part of Seroin. On the same day Turkey signed a treaty with Bulgaria on the transfer of Bulgaria territory along the right and left banks of the Marina River to Dedeagach. Soon after these deals, despite Russia's energetic efforts to prevent Bulgaria from entering into the war, on October 14, 1915 Bulgaria attacked the French army in Turkey. On October 14, 1915 Bulgaria attacked Serbia and entered the war on the side of the Austro-German bloc. By the end of 1915, Bulgarian troops occupied Macedonia.

By the end of 1915 Bulgarian troops occupied Macedonia and part of Serbia. In August 1916, together with Germany and Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria attacked Romania and occupied the southern part of Dobrogea. During the protracted war the living standards of the workers were decreasing, the national economy was collapsing. The popularity of the party of "tesniacs", "internationalists in action", was growing. From the very beginning, the "tesniacs" opposed Bulgaria's participation in the imperialist war. Participation in the war led to a sharp deterioration of the economic situation of Bulgaria.

The Great October Socialist Revolution in Russia had a tremendous impact on Bulgaria. The activity of the "tesnyakovs" intensified, calling on the Bulgarian workers to follow the example of the Russian proletariat, unrest began in the rear and ferment among the soldiers at the front. In the meantime the front on the Balkans still held, however, the Bulgarian army was no longer capable of serious combat operations. Domestic and foreign political difficulties were steadily increasing. The peace treaty with Romania which was signed in May 1918 did not help to alleviate them. According to the treaty South Dobrogea was returned to Bulgaria

On 15 September 1918 French, British, Serbian and Greek armies launched an offensive against the Bulgarian army in Macedonia. The front line was broken in the area of Dobropolo. The retreating Bulgarians rebelled, defeated the headquarters in Kustendil; on September 27 they occupied Radomir and proclaimed the Republic. On 29 September soldiers captured the village of Vladaia (near Sofia) and moved on Sofia. The Bulgarian government, with the help of U.S. diplomats, hastened to conclude an armistice on 29 September. 1918 in Thessaloniki. The Soldier's Revolt (so-called Vladaiskos) was suppressed with the help of German troops. However, Ferdinand was forced to abdicate the throne (October 3, 1918), giving it to his son Boris, and fled.

After the armistice the Anglo-French troops occupied Bulgaria and assisted the Bulgarian bourgeoisie in its struggle against the revolutionary movement. Bondage peace was imposed on Bulgaria Under the Treaty of Neuilly of 1919 Bulgaria was cut off from the Aegean Sea. South Dobrogea was again given to Romania and several smaller regions of Balkan were ceded to Yugoslavia which was created after the war. Bulgaria was only allowed to maintain an army of 20,000 men and was forbidden to have an air fleet. Moreover, it was obliged to pay reparations of 2,250 million gold francs. The whole economic and financial life of Bulgaria was placed under the control of the imperialist International Reparation Commission. The consequence of the war was an extreme worsening of the situation of the working masses.^{[citation needed]}

The Party of Tsenyak, which was one of the founders of the Communist International, transformed into the Communist Party of Bulgaria in May 1919. The Party, however, did not immediately free itself from the mistakes peculiar to the Tsenyaks, in particular—from underestimation of the revolutionary possibilities of the peasantry. In the summer and autumn of 1919 the Bulgarian proletariat, under the leadership of the Communist Party, rose in a strike struggle, unprecedented in its magnitude in the history of Bulgaria The culmination of this struggle was a strike of railway workers and civil servants in December 1919, suppressed in February 1920 by the coalition government of Stamboliysky.

On March 28, 1920 elections to the National Assembly were held. The Agrarian Union received 38% of the votes.

On March 28, 1920, elections to the People's Assembly were held, the Agrarian Union received 38% of the votes and formed a one-party cabinet headed by the Union leader, Stamboliiski. Under pressure from the peasantry, the Stamboliiski Government passed laws on the implementation of many reforms which were essentially half-hearted: the Act on Agrarian Reform under which surplus land over 30 ha was alienated to the State Land Fund to be given to landless and small peasants (by early 1923 the number of landless and midget farms was approx. At the beginning of 1923 the number of landless and dwarf peasants constituted approx. 27-28% and the number of peasant farms cultivating up to 5 ha was not less than 60%), the law on progressive income tax etc. These measures were taken by the Stamboliiski government without necessary resolution and consistency, but partially affected the interests of the Bulgarian big bourgeoisie and foreign capital. The working class and the Communist Party demanded decisive measures. The Stamboliiski Government, fearing the increasing influence of the Communists, persecuted the Communist Party, which received 20.2% of the vote in the elections of 1920, and pursued a policy of opposing the peasantry to the proletariat. Frightened by the growth of democratic forces and the strengthening of the autonomy of the Communist Party, the Bulgarian bourgeoisie, with the support of foreign capital that ruled in Bulgaria, began creating secret fascist organizations ("People's conspiracy" and others).

On June 9, 1923, a fascist coup was carried out, overthrowing Stamboliysky's government and killing Stamboliysky himself. A fascist clique headed by Tsankov, encouraged by international reaction, seized power. The Communist Party adopted an erroneous position of neutrality toward the coup. In September 1923 the monarcho-fascist government of Tsankov launched an open attack on the working class and the Communist Party. An anti-fascist uprising began in the country. The revolt covered almost the whole country. In some areas the rebels seized power (Bratz District, Razlog, etc.). A military revolutionary committee headed by G. M. Dimitrov and V. P. Kolarov was established to lead the uprising by the Communist Party of Bulgaria. However, the Government, with the support of international reaction, managed to defeat the rebel forces. The workers and peasants were brutally massacred by fascist gangs. The Communist Party and all progressive democratic organizations were banned. Despite the unsuccessful outcome the September Uprising played a major role in the growth of class consciousness of the proletariat and peasantry and the strengthening of the Communist Party, accelerating the process of its Bolshevization.

Tsankov's government 1924 outlawed the Communist Party in 1924. After the explosion in the Cathedral of St. Sophia (1925), his fascist clique increased unprecedented persecution of communists and workers in an attempt to physically destroy all the progressive forces of the Bulgarian people.

In January 1926 the Tsankov government that was finally compromised by the brutal repressions gave way to the Lapchev government which, continuing its former fascist policy, was obliged to give the appearance of weakening the dictatorship. The working class in Bulgaria took advantage of some legal possibilities: the trade unions were revived, in 1927 the workers' party was established under the leadership of the illegal Communist Party and the union of the working youth. In 1929 the world economic crisis began and one of the consequences was worsening of the imperialist countries' fight for strengthening and expanding their positions in Bulgaria Along with this, a sharp worsening of the working class position followed as a result of the economic crisis. The strike movement became widespread (especially in 1931).

In June 1931, elections were held in Bulgaria As a result, the Liacev government was replaced by the government of the so-called People's Bloc, which included representatives of the bourgeois opposition (including the Agricultural Union. The government of the People's Bloc, which included representatives of the bourgeois opposition (including the Farmers' Union). This government, under the guise of leftist phrases, continued its terror against the Communists and all the democratic elements. At the same time, discord within the ruling circles of Bulgaria increased, reflecting the tension of the domestic situation and the fragility of the existing regime. In this environment, a coup d'état took place on 19 May.

The new government of Kimon Georgiev imposed a military regime and suppressed all political parties.

Taking into consideration the increasing international prestige of the USSR, the traditional sympathy of the Bulgarian people to Russia and the danger of German aggression which increased with the installation of the Hitler dictatorship in Germany in 1933 the government of K. Georgiev established diplomatic relations with the USSR on 23 July 1934.

1935, Tsar Boris, relying on the revanchist pro-German elements, removed the government of Georgiev from power. Subsequent governments have pursued a policy of increased fascization of the country, focusing entirely on Hitler's Germany. This policy was strongly opposed by the popular masses led by the Communists. In 1938 the Bulgarian Communist Party and the Labor Party merged into the Labor Party, which was called the Bulgarian Labor Party, and after September 9, 1944—the BPP. 1944—BRP (Communists).

On the eve of the Second World War the influence of Germany on Bulgaria became much stronger. In 1939 Germany had a 2/3 share of German foreign-trade turnover. A significant part of the Bulgarian bourgeoisie was completely dependent on the German capital. Hitler's diplomacy played on the chauvinistic mood of the Bulgarian bourgeoisie (now the slogan of revision of borders of Bulgaria) and stopped the monarch-fascist clique of Bulgaria as a tool of German imperialist policy.^{[citation needed]}

At the beginning of the Second World War the Bulgarian government declared its neutrality, but this statement, as well as the signing in January 1940 of the Treaty of Trade and Navigation with the USSR, were only a cover for cooperation with Nazi Germany. In September 1940 a treaty was made between Bulgaria and Rumania by which Bulgaria received southern Cobrudmenea. On 1 March 1941 the Prime Minister Filov in Vienna signed the Memorandum of Accession of Bulgaria to the Berlin Pact and gave his consent to the invasion of German fascist troops in Bulgaria The invaders used the territory of Bulgaria to attack Greece and Yugoslavia on March 2, 1941 and the ruling circles of which opened the door to Hitler. Thus, the ruling monarch-fascist clique of Bulgaria headed by Tsar Boris, expressing the interests of the Bulgarian bourgeoisie associated with German capital, dragged Bulgaria into an alliance with the fascist powers. The traditional sympathies and the love of the Bulgarian people for the brotherly Russian people did not allow this clique to openly declare war on the USSR. Nevertheless Bulgaria was turned into a bridgehead.

Nevertheless Bulgaria was turned into a bridgehead to fight against the Soviet Union and in fact helped Germany which attacked the USSR on June 22, 1941. By replacing the German occupation units in Macedonia, the Serbian Pomerania and West Thrace the Bulgarian army liberated them to fight on other fronts, and in particular against the Soviet Union. The Bulgarian ports (Varna, Burgas, Ruso) were turned into bases of Hitler's naval forces on the Black Sea and all air and railroads of Bulgaria were in Hitler's hands. On November 25, 1941 the monarcho-fascist rulers of Bulgaria joined the "Leninist-Internationalist Pact".

The Bulgarian people have never put up with the criminal anti-people policy of the fascist rulers. The anti-fascist struggle became particularly widespread after the beginning of the Great Patriotic War of the Soviet Union. Under the leadership of the Communist Party, the struggle took armed forms, and guerrilla groups led by the Communists were created. Hitlerites with the help of their Bulgarian accomplices robbed the country clean. (The dissatisfaction of the Bulgarian people with the treacherous policy of the government grew day by day. The monarcho-fascist government tried to suppress the anti-fascist patriotic movement in the country by means of brutal repressions. During the war the fascist military field courts issued 1,590 death sentences. About 40,000 people were thrown into prisons and concentration camps.

On the initiative of G. M. Dimitrov under the guidance of the Communist Party in 1942 the Fatherland Front (PF) was formed, uniting the anti-fascist forces. On July 17, 1942 the illegal radio station "Hristo Potev" publicized the program of the Fatherland Front drawn up by G. M. Dimitrov, which had the following goals: to break the alliance with Hitler's Iermais and other powers of the Ottoman Empire, to cleanse the Bulgarian land from German fascist troops and Gestapo bandits and ensure cooperation between Bulgaria and the Soviet Union. The home front demanded immediate withdrawal of the Bulgarian troops from the regions they occupied and a friendly agreement with the neighboring nations. The immediate goal of the anti-fascist movement was the overthrow of the fascist regime in the country and the establishment of a people's democratic government. Taking into account the mood of the masses, part of the Land Union, part of the Social Democrats, the Union "Zveno" (representing the anti-German officers and part of the anti-German bourgeoisie), individual representatives of the anti-fascist bourgeois intellectuals who did not belong to political parties agreed with this program and joined the Fatherland Front headed by the Communist Party. The establishment of the Fatherland Front and wide popularization of its program expanded the anti-fascist struggle of the masses. Anti-Hitlerite sabotage intensified, sabotage of factories and railroads became more frequent. Peasants began to refuse to give grain and other products, they beat and expelled from the villages commissions and agents for grain collection. The activity of the Communist-led Home Front and the growth of its influence on the masses contributed greatly to the fact that the Bulgarian government did not dare to send the Bulgarian troops against the Soviet Army.

After the defeat of the Nazi forces at Stalingrad, Tsar Boris, trying to find a way out of the impasse, began to seek contact with the Anglo-Statesian circles. This aroused the suspicions of Hitler and his hordes. Boris was summoned to Hitler's headquarters for explanations. On his way to Sofia he died suddenly on August 28, 1943. Because of the infancy of Boris's heir, the last Bulgarian Tsar Simeon II (1943-40), a regency council was created consisting of Prince Kirill, Bogdan Filov and General Llichov, who continued the same anti-national, treasonous policies as Tsar Boris.

From the beginning of 1943, the Communist-led partisan movement covered the whole country. In the summer of 1944 the partisan detachments already numbered more than 40 thousand fighters and were widely supported by the country's population. Some partisan brigades numbered as many as 1000 or more men; they fought openly with gendarmerie and regular troops. To make the management of guerrilla warfare easier, the U.S. was divided into 12 military-operational zones, where military-operational headquarters with their subordinated units and brigades were formed. All partisan detachments of Bulgaria were part of a single national liberation rebel army headed by the supreme headquarters. Apart from partisan detachments auxiliary combat groups operated almost in all settlements of the country. According to the Red Army command, during the first ten months of 1943 there were 1015 acts of sabotage and diversions in Bulgaria, and only in July 1944 697 acts.

In the course of the people's liberation struggle the unity of the masses was created and strengthened and the foundation of the future people's democratic government was laid. Power. The working class, peasants and the working intelligentsia began to collaborate militarily, and the influence of the working class as a consistent fighter for the interests of the working people increased. Thus, the national liberation struggle was essentially a class revolutionary struggle of the working people, led by the working class and led by its vanguard, the Communist Party, against the bourgeoisie, the reactionary officialdom and monarchy, and the officers who collaborated with the occupants.

When in the summer of 1944 the Soviet troops defeated the German hordes on the territory of Romania and came to the borders of Bulgaria, the Bulgarian government Bagrimov August 26. 1944 issued a statement of its "complete neutrality". It was a ploy to deceive the Bulgarian people and the world public opinion with its false declarations of neutrality and to keep the retreating German troops in the territory of Bulgaria from imminent defeat and to give them an opportunity to create a new bridgehead for resistance. 5 Sept. 1944 Minister of Foreign Affairs of BSSR Bulgaria M. Molotov handed to the Bulgarian envoy in Moscow a note which said: if during the last three years Soviet government assumed that the small country was not able to resist the powerful German forces then under changed conditions it was possible to expect Bulgaria to refuse its pro-German policy and to break with Germany. Despite this the Bulgarian right refuses to break with Germany, in fact it is helping Germany against the Soviet Union.

Declaration of war by Soviet Union against monarch-fascist Bulgaria and entry of Soviet troops on the territory of Bulgaria was invaluable assistance of USSR to the Bulgarian people in their struggle against the clique of criminal rulers, foreign invaders and exploiting classes which supported them. At the same time by this act the Soviet government thwarted the machinations of the Anglo-American imperialists who sought to use the formal "neutrality" of Bulgaria in the war against the USSR to sign a separate armistice with Bulgaria, occupy it and the countries of Southeast Europe, maintain imperialist slavery in them and turn them into an anti-Soviet bridgehead. Appropriate secret negotiations between the Anglo-American representatives and representatives of the Bulgarian fascist clique took place in Istanbul and Cairo (1943-44). The rapid advance of the Soviet Army disrupted the secret negotiations between the monarcho-fascist clique of Bulgaria and the Anglo-American imperialist bloc and allowed the Uolish people to decide their own fate. On September 8, 1944 the Soviet troops, passing through the retreating German units, entered the territory of Bulgaria and occupied the towns of Ruse, Turtukai, Silistra, Dobrich, Razgrad, Shumen, and the Black Sea ports of Varna and Burgas. The local Bulgarian population enthusiastically met the Soviet soldiers, their liberators from the Nazi yoke. To the aid of the Soviet Army came the forces of the popular resistance movement, the whole working Bulgarian people rose. As early as September 1944, the miners in Perinka began a strike that was the signal for the political strike of the whole country.^{[citation needed]}

People's Republic of Bulgaria

See main article: People's Republic of Bulgaria (1946–1990)

On the night of September 8-9, 1944 partisan units and patriotic military units, including the only tank brigade in Bulgaria occupied state institutions and important strategic objects in Sofia. On September 9 sept. 1944 as a result of the popular uprising the fascist government was overthrown and the first Bulgarian government of the Home Front was established. Following the overthrow of the Fascist regime and the formation of the Home Front Government the Soviet government declared the cessation of hostilities with Bulgaria from 10 o'clock in the evening of the 9th sept. 1944. "...Speaking of the victory of the nationwide" uprising on September 9," pointed out G. M. We should emphasize once again that the greatest merit in the victory of the September 9th revolt and in the liberation of our fatherland from the Nazi yoke belongs to the heroic brotherly Soviet Army and its genial leader, Generalissimo Stalin, for which the Party, the working class and all our working people will always be grateful to them" ( "Pravda, 1948, December 21, No. 350, p. 3). The events of the 9th sept. 1944 in 15. was a revolutionary upheaval that dealt a decisive blow to capitalism and marked the entrance of Bulgaria to a new stage of historical development. In P. the state power passed into the hands of the fighting alliance of workers, peasants, artisans and progressive intellectuals, with the leading role of the early class and its vanguard, the Communist Party. Г! Bulgaria The old state apparatus of suppression and exploitation of the working masses was broken and the new state power was built as an instrument of suppression of the exploiters and liberation of the workers from all exploitation.

The Home Front government immediately after September 9, 1944 undertook important measures to implement the Home Front program and strengthen the people's democratic regime. 1944 carried out important measures to implement the program of the Fatherland Front and strengthen the people's democratic regime. The new government declared war on Hitler's Germany and set a firm course for unbreakable friendship with the Soviet Union, strengthening friendly relations with all democratic nations. The Government of the Fatherland Front launched a struggle for the elimination of the remnants of the fascist regime in the country. War criminals, including former regents and some ministers, were brought to trial and severely punished. A people's militia was created, which played a major role in strengthening the people's democracy regime. All fascist organizations were disbanded and their property was confiscated. The fascist press was shut down and the printing presses were handed over to the press organs of the Fatherland Front. All Fascist—racial and other anti-people laws were abolished. On the initiative of the Communist Party in the Army the Institute of deputy commanders for political affairs was established which played an important role in its democratization. Much work was done to organize and unite the working class. Fascist "trade unions" were dissolved. In a short time, 30 industry trade unions, united in the General Workers' Trade Union were established.

The government of the Fatherland Front took urgent measures to combat economic ruin and improve the situation of the working masses. Wages of workers and employees were raised, the peasants were assisted in carrying out the sowing campaign; the fight against speculation was initiated. However, during the first period of its activity the government of the home front had to pay attention to struggle against Hitler's Germany, which had not been beaten at that time, and to conquest of a just and lasting peace. On October 28, 1944 an armistice agreement was signed in Moscow with B, the Soviet Union, England and the United States. Despite the attempts of the British and German imperialists to hinder Bulgaria's march against Fascist Germany the Bulgarian army took an active part in the last phase of the war, fighting in the 3rd Ukrainian front of the Soviet Army in Yugoslavia, Hungary and Austria. Thus the Bulgarian people, along with the partisan struggle in 1941—44 made a new contribution to the defeat of fascism.

The important milestone in the democratic development of Bulgaria was the first free democratic elections. The elections to the new People's Parliament were appointed on August 26. 1945. However, due to the sabotage and provocations of the inner reaction, based on the subversive activities of the Anglo-Statesian imperialists and the open interference of England and the USA the elections were postponed until 18 November 1945. The People's Assembly was elected by a huge majority of the people. The Fatherland Front, led by the Communists, received an overwhelming majority of votes (88.18%) in these elections. In 1946 the National Assembly had passed several important laws, including the one on the landed property (the agrarian reform, which had given the land surplus of big landowners to landless and small peasants), on confiscation of wealth acquired by speculation and other illegal means, on the progressive income tax and others.

The most important question that faced the Bulgarian people was the question of the legalization and consolidation of the revolutionary victories of September 9. 1944. Despite the machinations of the reaction the Bulgarian people by means of the national referendum held on September 8, 1946 voted for the recognition of the revolutionary victories. 92.76% of the voters supported the National Republic and only 4.24% supported the Monarchy (3% abstained). Bulgaria was proclaimed a republic on 15 September. On October 27, 1946 the elections of the Great National People's Republic of Bashkortostan to the Grand National Assembly of the USSR were held. 1946 elections to the Great People's Assembly, which was called to adopt a new constitution, resulted in a victory for the forces of democracy, led by the Communist Party. The Fatherland Front won 366 seats, or 78.3 percent of the Grand National Assembly, including 276 mandates, or almost 60 percent of the Grand National Assembly. The Bulgarian people gave their full confidence in the Communist Party by popular secret ballot. In accordance with parliamentary tradition, the Communists received the right to form a new government. G. M. Dimitrov was elected prime minister of the first republican government of V. The government of G. M. Dimitrov made a number of crown social and economic changes: the Great National Assembly passed the laws on the two-year state plan (April 1947), on the nationalization of industry and banks (December 1947) and other important laws.

Socio-economic transformations in Bulgaria took place in a fierce class struggle with counter-revolutionary groups that were direct agents of Anglo-Statesian imperialism. In 1946-47 the military-fascist organizations ("Tsar Broom", "neutral officer" and others) and the counterrevolutionary group Nikola Petkov were liquidated. Petkov was preparing a military-fascist coup to overthrow the Fatherland Front and restore the reactionary regime.

On February 10, 1947 during the Paris Peace Conference the parties signed a peace treaty. While preparing the terms of the treaty the Soviet Union representatives restored the diplomatic relations with Bulgaria as early as 14 Aug. During the preparation of the treaty the representatives of the Soviet Union that had restored the diplomatic relations with Bulgaria as early as August 14, 1945, consistently and steadfastly defended the interests of the Bulgarian people from the attacks of the British-American imperialist block and its agents—the Greek monarch-fascists and the Yugoslavian spy group Tito used to try to unseat some Bulgarian territory. The Bulgarian people, despite the machinations of the traitors and the Anglo-Statesian imperialists, preserved the territorial integrity of the country and national independence thanks to the support of the USSR. Recognizing Bulgaria's responsibility for its participation in the criminal alliance with Nazi Germany, the treaty took into account Bulgaria's contribution to the victory over Nazi Germany by taking part in the armed struggle against it. The treaty stipulated for Bulgaria the borders that existed on January 1, 1941. Bulgaria was to pay $70 million in reparations over eight years. The signing of the peace treaty improved the international standing of Bosnia, opened up new prospects for peaceful co-operation and the successful development of the country along the lines of the people's democracy, on the road to socialism. BULGARIA established normal diplomatic relations with the majority of European and many non-European countries and took a firm place among the countries of the anti-imperialist and democratic camp led by the Soviet Union.

In fulfillment of the people's will, the Great People's Assembly on December 4, 1947 unanimously adopted the basic law of the country—the Constitution of the People's Republic of Bulgaria. The Constitution legally consolidated the results of the long struggle of the Bulgarian people for their freedom and independence and the profound democratic changes that took place in the country, provided real democratic rights for the working people and created a new type of State. It was a National Republic where the power belonged to the working class and where the large industry, transport and banks belonged to the State whose leading force was the working class alliance headed by the working class and the Ogre. In Bulgaria the people's democracy regime that was established immediately after the anti-fascist uprising of 9 September 1944 was consolidated. 1944. The concentration of political power and economic supremacy in the hands of the working class enabled the people's democracy regime to fully perform the functions of the dictatorship of the proletariat.

Bulgaria's greatest foreign policy success was the conclusion of the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance with the Soviet Union. This treaty was signed on March 18, 1948 in Moscow and it was the most important guarantee for the freedom and independence of the Bulgarian people. Bulgaria also signed treaties of friendship, cooperation and mutual aid with the countries of people's democracy (with Albania—on December 16. Bulgaria also signed treaties of friendship and cooperation and mutual aid with the countries of people's democracy (Albania on December 16, 1947, with Romania on 16 Jan. 1948, with Czechoslovakia—23rd ay. 1948, with Poland—29 May 1948, with Hungary—16 July 1948). In January 1949 Bulgaria, together with some other people's democratic countries, became a member of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance created with the participation of the USSR.

At the end of December 1948 the V Congress of the BRP was held after the merger of the BRP with the Bulgarian Labor Social Democratic Party on the basis of the Marxist-Leninist program. The congress proclaimed the main task of the party and the whole Bulgarian people to establish the foundations of socialist system in the country. The realization of this task was included in the Five-Year National Economic Plan (1949-53), which was adopted at the congress and then legally approved on December 30. 1948 by the Great People's Assembly. On May 15, 1949 in Bulgaria the elections of deputies to local authorities—and regional people's councils and the election of judges were held. The elections brought a brilliant new victory to the Communist-led Fatherland Front—its candidates were voted for by 92.01%.

On July 2, 1949, Bulgaria suffered a grave loss: G. M. Dimitrov, a prominent figure of the international labor movement, the leader and teacher of the Bulgarian people, died. The Bulgarian government was headed by Vasil Kolarov, a staunch associate of G. M. Dimitrov.

The exposure of Tito's clique in Yugoslavia strengthened vigilance within the Bulgarian Communist Party and led to the exposure and elimination of the conspiratorial counterrevolutionary group Tr. Koston, a gang of spies and provocateurs recruited by the British and American imperialists who had infiltrated the Bulgarian Communist Party. This gang led by the spy Postov was preparing, on the instructions of the Anglo-Statesian imperialists and the Tito clique, to carry out a counterrevolutionary coup by means of armed action, to tear Bulgaria away from the USSR and the countries of national democracy and to turn it into a colony and a military base of the American-English imperialism. In particular, they wanted to tear off the so-called Pirnpsky region (Blagoevgrad district) from Bulgaria and give it to Yugoslavia. The attempts to carry out this plan, dating back to 1945, failed completely thanks to the opposition of the Communist Party, the people's power and personally G. M. Dimitrov. The agents of imperialist intelligence deployed sabotage and sabotage activities, continuing to assemble forces to carry out their designs for the restoration of the capitalist system in Bulgaria and cut Bulgaria off from the USSR and murder of G. M. Dimitrov and other leaders of the Bulgarian people. The defeat of this group in 1949 delivered a devastating blow to the Anglo-Statesian imperialists and their Titoite agents.

In spite of all the vile machinations, the Anglo-American and Titoite mercenaries were not able to reverse the development of Bulgaria and prevent the strengthening of the People's Democratic Bulgaria The Bulgarian people, under the leadership of the Communist Party, Bulgaria, guided by the Marxist-Leninist learning and experience of socialist construction in the USSR, has made great success in the development of the country on the road to socialism. The country unfolded the process of industrialization and the creation of peasant production co-operatives, with the help of the People's Democratic State. In the atmosphere of exceptional solidarity of the Bulgarian people around the Communist Party on December 18, 1949 elections to the National Assembly and the county councils were held. By voting unanimously for the Fatherland Front candidates (the Fatherland Front candidates received 97.06% of the vote) the Bulgarian people voted for unbreakable friendship with the USSR, for peace, democracy and socialism. On February 1, after the death of Bulgaria Kolarov, Chairman of the Council of Ministers, which followed on January 23, 1950, the government of Bulgaria was headed by Valko Chervenkov, Secretary of the Central Committee of the Bulgarian Communist Party.

A number of trials against spy and traitor gangs (the trial of II. Lotkov in 1947, K. Lulchev in 1948, Tr. Koston in 1949, and groups of Statesian and South Slavic spies in 1950), the Anglo-Statesian imperialists did not stop their fight against the people's democratic Bulgaria. On February 20, 1950, in response to the Bulgaria government's demand for the withdrawal of Heath, the American envoy and organizer of subversive and espionage activities, the U. S. government severed diplomatic relations with Bulgaria However, the Bulgarian people resolutely rejected the blackmail, threats and pressure of the imperialists.^{[citation needed]}

Counterrevolution

In 1990, Bulgaria held its first multiparty elections since the Second World War. The Union of Democratic Forces coalition received $2 million from the NED to influence the election. Despite Western interference, the Bulgarian Socialist Party won 47% of the vote compared to 36% for the UDF. Hundreds of observers from Western Europe acknowledged that the election was fair.

On 6 July, President Petar Mladenov resigned due to a week of protests and a hunger strike outside parliament. Interior minister Atanas Smerdijev also resigned and parliament elected UDF leader Zhelyu Zelev as president. Counterrevolutionaries burned down and looted the headquarters of the Socialist Party.

On 23 November, the UDF stormed out of parliament after failing to remove Prime Minister Andrey Lukanov in a no-confidence motion. The UDF narrowly won the next election, but its cabinet and vice president resigned. In July 1993, protesters prevented the president from entering office for a month.

After the overthrow of the people's democracy, poverty rates in Bulgaria increased by 750%. 20% of the population left the country and birth rates dropped to their lowest point since 1945. Almost half of Bulgarians were at risk of poverty or social exclusion in 2011. Since capitalism was restored in 1990, 57% of Bulgarians say the economy has become worse and less than 12% say ordinary people are better off.

After the counterrevolution, many children could not go to school, and many workers could never retire. Healthcare became unaffordable for the working class, and going to the dentist was considered a luxury. Many retired people had to return to part-time jobs to survive. Between 1990 and 2000, wages dropped by 25%, and the prices of basic necessities doubled or tripled.

Geography

Bulgaria is located in the temperate zone; in terms of natural conditions it occupies a transitional area between Eastern and Central Europe on the north and the Mediterranean on the south.

Topography

The terrain of Bulgaria is extremely varied. There are mountainous areas (altitudes above 600m) which occupy 23% of the country's area and hilly areas (from 200m to 600m) which account for 41% of the country's area. There are also significant plains (up to 200m) which occupy almost a third of the country's area—31%. In the north of Bulgaria the Danube plain rises from 100-380 m in the west to 500 m in the east. Deep river valleys partition it into hilly and plateau-like areas. The plain drops to a high escarpment (up to 100 m) in the Danube River valley, and to the east, it becomes the Dobroudja Plateau. The Stara Planina (Balkan Mountains) are situated to the south of the plain and cross all of Balkan from W. to E. The middle and western parts of the mountains are higher (their maximum height is 1,500-2,000 m, while the eastern part is lower (1,600-1,100 m) and more rugged. South of the middle part of Stara Planina stretches a chain of less high mountains Sredna Gora (up to 1604 m high). Sredna Gora and Stara Planina are connected in some places by cusps of 1000-1300 m, between which there are tectonic depressions (Kazanlak, Karlovo, etc.) that are called Podbalkan Depression. The Rila, Pirin and Rhodope Mountains occupy the south and south-west of the country. Rila and Pirin are the highest part of the entire Balkan Peninsula (Musala, 2925 m, Vihren, 2914 m), with alpine-type peaks. Between the Rhodopes and Sredna Gora along the Maritsa River stretches the most fertile in the country Verhnefrakiyskaya lowland. It is separated from the Black Sea Lowland by the Tuncian Hills and the Strandzha Mountains (Istranca in Turkish). The Black Sea coast of B. is mostly low, in some places with steep shores; there are many beaches. In the extreme south-east are the northern spurs of the Strandzha Mountains.

Geology

In terms of geological structure the territory of Bulgaria belongs to the Mediterranean folded belt. In the north of Bulgaria there is the Mysian platform, composed of horizontally lying Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic sediments, deposited on folded Precambrian rocks. To the south stretches the Pre-Balkan zone, composed of folded sediments of the Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous and Paleogene. The Stara Planina megantiklinorium occupies the axial part of the Balkans, composed of Paleozoic rocks in the core and Jurassic and Triassic rocks on the E. On the wings and in narrow synclines, there are Mesozoic and Paleogene deposits. Further to the south, there is the Sredna Gora zone, consisting of horticlinorie, formed by Paleozoic and Precambrian metamorphic rocks, and graben-synclinorie, filled mainly with Upper Cretaceous flysch and andesites. From the north, the Sredna Gora zone is bounded by the Zabalkan deep fault, along which there are structures of pinnacles and depressions made by Neogene-Paleogene continental sediments. The southern part of Bulgaria is occupied by the Rhodope Massif, consisting of Precambrian crystalline rocks overlain by Paleogene sediments. It is bounded on the north by the Maritsa Fault, and on the west by the Kraiště fold-break system.

The most important minerals: coal (East Maritsa, Pernik, Bobov Dol basins), iron ores (Kremikovskoe deposit), lead-zinc ores (Rodop massif), copper ores (Medet deposit), rock salt (Mirovo district), oil (Mizi platform), mineral waters, construction materials.^{[citation needed]}

Climate

Most of Bulgaria has a temperate, continental climate; in the south, especially along the valleys of the Struma and Mesta Rivers, the climate is transitional to the Mediterranean climate. There is an altitudinal climatic zonation in the mountains. An important climatic boundary between N. and S. is the Stara Planina. The average January temperature ranges from -2° C to +2.5° C in the plains and up to -10.8° C in the mountains (Musala); in July, it is 25.1° C (Petrich) and 5.1° C (Musala), respectively. Precipitation is brought by Western and Northwestern winds, their annual precipitation is 450-600 mm in the lowlands and 850-1300 mm in the mountains, with a maximum in the first half of summer. The driest time of year is the beginning of autumn. Droughts occur in summer in many areas (mainly on the plains). The snow cover stays for 50-70 days in the north, 20-30 days in the south, and for up to 7-8 months in the mountains.^{[citation needed]}

Hydrography

There are relatively many rivers in Bulgaria (except for the eastern part of the Danubian hilly plain), but most of them are of short length and mountainous nature and become very shallow in late summer. The Danube is the only navigable river. The biggest tributary of the Danube in Bulgaria is the Iskar River. The most full-flowing of the Aegean Rivers is the Maritsa (its main tributaries are the Tunza and the Arda), then the Strouma and the Mesta. The rivers are important as sources of hydropower and irrigation. Many reservoirs have been built on them. There are few lakes (mainly of glacial origin, in the Rila and Pirin Mountains) and they are not large. There are more than 500 mineral springs in Bulgaria.^{[citation needed]}

Soils and vegetation

Soils and vegetation. Soils in the Danube Plain are predominantly black and gray forest ashy, brown and dense black soils ("smolnytsi") to the south of Stara Planina, and brown forest, mountain forest, dark-colored, mountain-meadow and skeleton soils in the mountains. In floodplains—fertile alluvial soils.

Vegetation is represented by forests, occupying about 3.7 mln ha (1968) or about 1/3 of the territory of the country (including more than 1 mln ha occupied by man-made forest plantations). 75.3% are deciduous forests, mainly composed of oak and hornbeam on the N. and eastern beech on the S.-E. Floodplain forests—longhouses (elm, ash, etc.) are characteristic. In the mountains, higher deciduous forests up to heights of 1700-2000 m are coniferous forests of pine, spruce and fir (24.7%). 87.8% of the forests are used mainly for timber production, 5.8% are protective forests, 2.1% are resort forests, 1.7% are green forests, 0.5% are shelterbelt forests, and 0.4% are protected areas (1965). Shibliak (bush oak, Derzhi tree, juniper, in the South—also pistachio) is typical of shrub thickets. Grass formations are represented by dry, subalpine and alpine meadows and steppe vegetation in the North.

Fauna

Animals of different origins are represented in Bulgaria. Central European species are mainly found in northern Bulgaria and Stara Planina, steppe species are mainly found in eastern Bulgaria, arcto-alpine species in the upper mountain belts, and Mediterranean species in the southern part of the country. In the forests one can meet red deer, fallow deer, roe deer, chamois, and wild boar; in the mountains black polecat, weasel, badger, wolf, fox, European cat, squirrel, brown hare, dormouse, and small rodents are typical. In treeless northern areas—gopher, polecat, hamster, gnatcat. The bird fauna is rich, consisting of species that are common in southern and central Europe. A variety of reptiles, especially in the south. In the Black Sea near the coast of Bulgaria pelamid, mackerel, mullet, flounder are caught; in the Danube—starred sturgeon, pike-perch, carp.^{[citation needed]}

Science

The origins of scientific and technical knowledge on the territory of Bulgaria can be traced back to the cultures of the ancient Thracians, Greeks and Romans. Since the formation of the Bulgarian state, urban planning, architecture, mining and weapons production have developed. The centuries-long Byzantine and Ottoman yoke has been detrimental to the development of Bulgaria, but the Bulgarian people have managed to avoid assimilation.

Since the second half of the 18th century there has been a period of national revival of Bulgarian culture and science. The first scientific manuals and along with them original works on natural history and medicine were created. In the 1st half of the 19th century there are geographical works ("Brief Political Geography" by Neofit Bozveli of Hilendary, etc.). Geographic and geological route researches in Bulgaria were being carried out from the 30s, mainly by foreign scientists. From the 1860s the following biology works appeared: "Man in comparison with other animals" by V. Beron (1870; published in Romania), "Zoology" (1886), and "The Natural History of Domestic Animals" by I. Gruev (1869; published in Vienna).

By the end of the 19th century science in Bulgaria received more favourable conditions for its development which was connected with the conquest of state independence and the appearance of scientific institutions. The B'lgarsko knizhovno druzhstvo (Bulgarian Book Society) established in Braila (1869) resumes its activity in Sofia. In 1884 in its structure the Natural Science Department is organized. In 1899 the Museum of Natural Science was established. In 1911 the society was reorganized into the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences with the Department of Natural and Mathematical Sciences. The first institution of higher education was the High School in Sofia (founded in 1888), where for 40 years the main scientific work of the greatest scientists of Bulgaria was concentrated. The research in the field of geology, biology, medicine, physics, chemistry, mathematics etc. was carried out. The first experimental farms in Pleven (1901), Sadov (1902), and near Ruse (1905) were established.

The works of A. Yavashev, who compiled (1887) a summary of the Bulgarian flora, stand out in the field of biology. I. Urumov, S. Petkov, D. Davidov, D. Yordanov, S. Georgiev, Bulgaria Akhtarov, N. Arnaudov, etc.—and other authors of works on geobotany, floristics, plant systematics and morphology, and nature conservation. IN 1925 N. Stoyanov and Bulgaria Stefanov published the work "Flora of Bulgaria". Zoology is represented by the works of S. Jurinich, G. Shishkov, T. Morov, I. Buresh, P. Drensky, and others. Questions of general biology and cytogenetics were investigated by M. Popov, D. Kostov, and others. A. Zlatarov's achievements in biochemistry and organic chemistry are well known. In 1930 the Marine Biological Station with an aquarium was established in Varna which was later transformed into the Institute of Fisheries and Oceanography. The agrobiological direction of research is developed by K. Markov, I. Ivanov, H. Daskalov and others. Works on animal husbandry are by J. Ganchev, S. Petrov, G. Khlebarov, N. Platikanov, and others.

During the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-78 the activity of S.. P. Botkin, N. I. Pirogov, N. V. Sklifosovsky, and other Russian physicians contributed to the development of medicine in Bulgaria, and to the drafting of sanitary legislation. In the field of medicine an outstanding role belonged to H. Stambolski, D. Mollov, P. Orahovac, and others. N. Tsokov, I. Batsarov, I. Piperkov, V. Georgiev, M. Ivanov, etc., conducted considerable research. In the 80-90's the first medical journals were established. The Medical Faculty of the University was established in 1918 (later it was reorganized into the Higher Medical Institute). The first microbiological research centers were the bacteriological stations set up in 1897 and 1901 which were later transformed into the veterinary-bacteriological and hygienic institutes.

The development of veterinary science was connected with the Veterinary Faculty of the University (1923) (now the Higher Veterinary Medicine Institute).

In geology the most important role was played by G. Zlatarski who laid down the foundations of the country's stratigraphy and started geological mapping in 1897. State geological service was founded in 1890. SINCE 1891 S. Vatsov conducted seismic research. The departments of mineralogy and petrography (1895) and geology and paleontology (1897) were established. Works on geotectonics (S. Bonchev and others), mineralogy and petrology (G. Bonchev and others), paleontology (P. Bakalov and others) were conducted. In 1925 the Bulgarian Geological Society was founded, in 1918 the Bulgarian Geographic Society was organized, and in 1927 the Department of Physical Geography was established at the University. Regional geographic (A. Ishirkov, etc.), geomorphological, climatological, and other investigations were carried out. The issues of soil science were studied (N. Pushkarov, etc.). In 1934 the Central Meteorological Institute was established on the base of the meteorological service which was founded in 1894.

The scientific activity of P. Raikov, who was head of the department of organic chemistry from 1894 to 1935, played an important role in the development of chemical research. Famous are the chemical researches of Z. Karaoglanov (analytical chemistry), D. Balarev (general and inorganic chemistry), G. Rankov (fats technology), D. Ivanov (organic chemistry), I. Stransky, etc. Since 1923 there has been a society of chemists with a printed organ "Chemistry and Industry".

The research in physics was begun in the Higher School in Sofia and in the Physico-mathematical Society of Bulgaria which was founded in 1898. The first great physicist who worked in Bulgaria was the Russian scientist P. I. Bakhmetyev, whose research covered the problems of ferromagnetism (especially the phenomena of magnetostriction), thermoelectricity; he also studied the phenomena of anabiosis. Studies were conducted by A. Khristov on the molecular physics of solutions and electrolytes, by P. Penchev, E. Karamikhailov, and others on the radioactivity of natural waters and rocks. In the physics of dielectrics and semiconductors, G. Nadzhakov discovered the photoelectric state of matter. In 1892 the department of astronomy was established at the high school in Sofia, and in 1894 an observatory was founded (under the direction of M. Bychvarov). The first astronomical works were by N. Stoyanov and K. Popov.

The mathematical sciences were mainly developed in the works of the professors of the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics of Sofia University K. Popov, I. Tsenov, L. Chakalov, N. Obreshkov, and others.

The development of natural and technical sciences was hindered by the political regime, weak material resources, the small number of research personnel, etc.

Overthrow of the monarch-fascist regime in Bulgaria (1944) and the beginning of the process of socialist construction in the country ushered in a new era in the history of Bulgarian science. The main scientific centers are the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Academy of Agricultural Sciences (ASN).

At the present stage of development, Bulgarian science has made progress in many directions. Fruitful mathematical research was continued by K. Popov (mathematical theory of irreversible thermodynamic processes), L. Chakalov (theory of functions), I. Tsenov (analytical mechanics), and N. Obreshkov (theory of series, linear algebra, probability theory). G. Bradistilov (nonlinear differential equations and their applications), Bulgaria Petkanchin (axiomatic geometry, differential geometry), Bulgaria Dolapchiev (analytic mechanics), L. Iliev (theory of functions), and Y. Tagamlitsky (functional analysis) joined the research. During the 60's, teams were created to develop the main directions of modern mathematics and its applications. In collaboration with the USSR Academy of Sciences and the academies of other socialist countries, the problems of mathematical support for computers, automata theory, control theory, and mathematical modeling (L. Iliev, Bulgaria Sendov, and others) were investigated.

The progress of physical sciences was stimulated by a considerable improvement in the material-experimental base. The main areas of research are solid state physics, especially semiconductors, nuclear physics, and electronics (G. Nadzhakov, S. Petrov, M. Borisov, R. Andreychin, etc.). Studies on the creation of semiconductor devices were begun. The comprehensive development of problems of solid state physics is conducted jointly with the USSR Academy of Sciences, the German Academy of Sciences in Berlin, etc. In 1961 with the help of USSR an experimental nuclear reactor was built, a laboratory was organized and nuclear research was started. In cooperation with Hungarian Academy of Sciences a high-mountain space station with a cosmic ray laboratory was built on the top of Musala. The main fields of research in electronics are emission and gas electronics, quantum electronics, ultrahigh frequencies, and thin layer electronics (E. Djakov et al.). In the field of theoretical physics, A. Datsev, H. Khristov, I. Todorov, and others are working. In 1952 the astronomy section of the BAS was founded. Bulgarian astronomers are developing the problems of cosmogony, in particular the Moon (N. Bonev), variable stars, solar activity, meteor astronomy, meteoritics, etc.

Progress has been made in the unification of geodesic and cartographic works; original studies of geodesic coordinates have been conducted (V. Khristov and others). Geophysical research has become multifaceted. Atmospheric physics is developing in connection with meteorology, climatology, synoptic and aerology. The processes of formation of clouds and precipitation, as well as atmospheric circulation and turbulence of air currents are being studied (L. Krystanov and others). The lower ionosphere is sounded, electrical characteristics of the middle ionosphere are obtained (G. Nestorov et al.). Studies on gravimetry and seismology are being conducted.

Development of earth sciences is connected with tasks of use of natural resources of the country, and, in particular, with intensification of geological prospecting works. Geological research is also conducted in connection with hydrotechnical, road and capital construction. The main directions of research are regional studies of the composition and structure of the earth's crust and patterns in the distribution of minerals. It is focused on geotectonics (E. Bonchev et al.), magmatism and metallogeny (S. Dimitrov et al.), crystallochemistry, geochemistry and mineralogy (I. Kostov et al.), engineering geology and soil science (Bulgaria Kamenov et al.), hydrogeology and hydrogeochemistry. Stratigraphic and lithologic studies of geological formations and related mineral resources are being conducted. Paleontological studies have been developed (V. Tsankov et al.). Regional work has led to the discovery of new mineral deposits of oil, coal, iron and manganese ores, polymetals, copper and molybdenum. (I. Yovchev et al.) and contributed to solving the issues of water supply in certain regions (Dobrudja) and settlements. Engineering-geological and hydrogeological zoning of Bulgaria has been completed.

Complex and sectoral geographic research is carried out in various regions of Bulgaria (J. Gylybov etc.). The geomorphological researches have been developed. The "Climatic Atlas" and "Climatic Guidebook NRB" have been published. Economic and geographic works are devoted to the geography of population, industry, transport, agriculture (A. Beshkov and others). Together with Soviet geographers he wrote a collective two-volume work "The Geography of Bulgaria" (1961-66).

The chemical investigations are expanding and deepening. The theory of crystal growth developed in the 1930s (I. Stransky and R. Kaishev) was further developed (R. Kaishev, G. Bliznakov, E. Budevski, N. Pangarov). Progress has been made in the study of the following problems: stability of colloidal films (A. Sheludko), mechanism of photographic image formation (I. Malinovskii), quantum-chemical theory of hydrogen overvoltage and electron emission of metals and semiconductors (S. Khristov), adsorption and inorganic catalysis, and analytical chemistry (N. Penchev et al.).

Successful studies are carried out in organic synthesis (D. Ivanov, A. Spasov, Ch. Ivanov, Kh. Ivanov, and others), stereochemistry and conformation analysis (Bulgaria Kurtev and others), homogeneous and heterogeneous organic catalysis (D. Shopov and others), quantum organic chemistry and molecular spectroscopy, on natural substances (terpenes, alkaloids, and lipids) and synthetic polymers.

In the field of biology the most significant research began after 1959. Research institutes and laboratories were established in new fields (biochemistry, biophysics, plant and animal physiology, industrial microbiology). New problems and modern experimental methods are being developed in the field of classical biological sciences. Achievements of biological science are successfully applied in medicine, agriculture and industry. The description of the flora and fauna of Bulgaria is completed. A multi-volume edition "Flora of Bulgaria" (edited by D. Yordanov et al.) is published, and the edition "Fauna of Bulgaria" is in preparation. The research has enriched the theory of stimulation and inhibition of life processes in plants and explained some peculiarities of photosynthesis and its products (K. Popov et al.). Virology, immunology, microbiology (S. Angelov, V. Markov, A. Toshkov, I. Kuyumdzhiev, etc.) have made progress. Some aspects of microbial metabolism have been studied and the influence of certain factors on biosynthesis of vitamins, enzymes, amino acids and other biologically active substances has been explained (I. Emanuilov, I. Pashev, etc.). New enzymes and preparations with strong proteolytic and other actions have been obtained (I. Pashev et al.).

An original method has been developed for quantitative determination of nucleic acids in animal tissues (R. Tsanev et al.). The integrated studies on biocenosis and ecosystems, on biological productivity of the biosphere, and on the rational use of biological resources are being carried out.

In the field of helminthology and general parasitology the problems of parasite distribution and ecology, manifestation of immunity and pathogenesis (K. Matov, I. Vasilev, P. Pavlov) have been studied.

There are significant achievements in agricultural science, especially in breeding and plant breeding (H. Daskalov, A. Popov, P. Popov, R. Georgieva, K. Stoev, etc.). Large specialized institutes for main agricultural crops (wheat, maize, tobacco, vegetable crops, fruit, grapes, cotton, roses, etc.) have been created and are operating, whose activities are mainly aimed at developing the technology of crop cultivation and creating new, more productive and high-quality varieties. New varieties and hybrids of tomatoes, grapes, tobacco, corn, cotton, etc. are obtained. Research work has been done on plant protection (I. Kovaczewski), as well as on breeding of agricultural animals (N. Platikanov, S. Kumanov, K. Bratanov, etc.), on establishing the nutritive value of fodder, on creating new breeds of agricultural animals, and on artificial insemination.

In the field of veterinary medicine physiological processes in the digestive system of domestic animals (T. Radev et al.), problems of reproduction biology and immunity, reactions during fertilization (K. Bratanov et al.), problems of zoohygiene, in particular industrial animal husbandry (G. Petkov). The pathogenesis, morphology and immunity of a number of parasitic and other diseases of agricultural animals have been studied (K. Ivanov et al.). The etiology and epizootology of a number of infectious diseases have been clarified (I. Chenchev, T. Iliev, P. Pavlov, A. Toshkov, E. Yanev). The etiology of mycoses of birds has been established (K. Ivanov, S. Nedyalkov, Z. Mladenov). The disorders of mineral and vitamin metabolism in growing and highly productive animals (Bulgaria Nachev et al.), problems of veterinary toxicology, pharmacology (P. Popov, D. Drumev, P. Gabrishansky et al.) were studied. The dynamics of microbiological and biochemical processes in animal products were studied and the standards for veterinary and sanitary control and examination were proposed (I. Emanuilov, C. Zakhariyev, I. Yotov, etc.).

Research work in the field of medicine was also widely deployed. All scientific medical institutions worked under the guidance of a single scientific medical council. Experimental methods were introduced for solving scientific tasks in the field of medical-biological, clinical and hygienic disciplines. The most significant of the medical problems being developed are: morphology and reactivity of the organism in ontogenesis (A. Hadjiolov, D. Kadanov, etc.), physiological mechanisms of regulation (D. Orahovac, D. Mateev), scientific bases of nutrition, dietetics and gastroenterology (T. Tashev, H. Brailski, A. Maleev), cardiovascular diseases (A. Puhlev, M. Rashev), neurology and psychiatry (G. Uzunov, N. Shipkovski, G. Nastev), dermatology and venereology (L. Popov, P. Popchristov, etc.), endocrinology (I. Penchev, A. Popov, etc.), inflammatory and degenerative joint diseases (V. Tsonchev), and pathophysiology (V. Serafimov).

Technical sciences are being developed in higher education institutions, in BAN and sectoral institutes. Progress was made in the field of water management and hydraulic engineering, technical and structural mechanics, power engineering and electrical engineering, metal science and metal technology, the theory of architecture and urban planning.

Theoretical problems are being worked out and experimental research in the field of building constructions because of the introduction of industrial methods in housing construction (G. Brankov and others). Significant results were achieved in the creation of new building materials. The rapid-hardening cement was created and put into production (I. Simeonov and others). Studies on many issues of construction of hydrotechnical and land reclamation structures (D. Velev) as well as hydrotechnics and hydraulics were completed.

In mechanical engineering technology, special methods of metal testing were developed. New casting methods were created that made it possible to control and regulate the parameters of the casting process (A. Balevsky, I. Dimov, etc.), which resulted in increased productivity and product quality.

In connection with the rapidly developing electrical industry and instrumentation industry, research and results were obtained in the field of electrical engineering and radio engineering (A. Atanasov and others). Automation problems are being developed. Unique devices and systems are created which were introduced into production, discrete devices for control and management of production processes. A number of technical magazines were published in Bulgaria, the main of which was "Tekhnicheska Misyl" (1964-2002).